Bidirectional Scattering Distribution Function (BSDF) measurements of selected specular samples were made using the Table-Top Goniometer (TTG) in the Diffuser Calibration Lab (DCL) at NASA GSFC in the support of NASA remote sensing instruments and programs. The same TTG system has also been used in the BRDF measurements for diffuse samples. The tunable laser-based TTG possesses the advantages of small incident beam profile and configuration flexibility and is able to meet various BSDF test requirements on specular samples with flat and curved surfaces. It also has a useful capability in characterizing instrument straylight due to surface roughness and in determining the scattering light distribution function of optical surfaces. The BSDF measurements on specular samples can be performed over 8 orders of linear dynamic range with correction of instrument signatures. In this paper, we present BSDF results on two types of specular samples: a witness flat fold mirror for the Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE) project and four Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) samples for the Restore project at NASA GSFC. BRDF measurements in the viewing angle range of ± 90° were acquired at 500 nm, 700 nm, and 2000 nm and at incident angles of 0°, 8°, and 25° for the PACE sample, and at 500 nm, 633 nm, 700 nm, 900 nm, 1000 nm, 1550 nm, and 1800 nm at incident angles of 10° and 25° for the MLI samples. For both types of samples, the ABg model was applied to fit the BSDF data to generate the parameters for optical modeling. The ABg model is able to fit the BSDF data on the polished surface of the flat mirror very well. However, two scattering components were seen in the MLI BSDF fitting results attributed to wrinkle and surface morphology issues. Total Hemispherical Reflectance (THR) and Total Integrated Scatter (TIS) measurements were also made on the samples and were compared to the BSDF results. The details of the BSDF measurement setup and the methodology for realization of the BRDF scale for the specular samples are also described.
This paper describes computational results obtained with a high-fidelity optical model of the Wide-Field Imaging
Interferometry Testbed (WIIT). The WIIT model includes imperfections inherent in the hardware testbed, such as
deviations of the mirrors from their ideal shapes. Model interferograms (brightness in a detector pixel as a function of
optical delay) are presented here for several representative test scenes "observed" with multiple interferometric
baselines. The results match theoretical expectations and can be compared with real WIIT measurements to identify and
characterize instrumental and environmental artifacts in our laboratory data, and to aid in the interpretation of those data.
We present recent results from the Wide-Field Imaging Interferometry Testbed (WIIT). The data acquired with the WIIT is "double Fourier" data, including both spatial and spectral information within each data cube. We have been working with this data, and starting to develop algorithms, implementations, and techniques for reducing this data. Such algorithms and tools are of great import for a number of future missions, including the Space Infrared Interferometric Telescope (SPIRIT), the Submillimeter Probe of the Evolution of Cosmic Structure (SPECS), and the Terrestrial Planet Finder Interferometer (TPF-I)/Darwin. Recent results are discussed and future study directions are described.
The technique of wide field imaging for optical/IR interferometers for missions like Space Infrared Interferometric (SPIRIT), Submillimeter Probe of the Evolution of Cosmic Structure (SPECS), and the Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF-I)/DARWIN has been demonstrated through the Wide-field Imaging Interferometry Testbed (WIIT). In this paper, we present an optical model of the WIIT testbed using the commercially available optical modeling and analysis software FRED. Interferometric results for some simple source targets are presented for a model with ideal surfaces and compared with theoretical closed form solutions. Measured surface deformation data of all mirror surfaces in the form of Zernike coefficients are then added to the optical model compared with results of some simple source targets to laboratory test data. We discuss the sources of error and approximations in the current FRED optical model. Future plans to refine the optical model are also be discussed.
The Terrestrial Planet Finder-Coronagraph (TPF-C) is a NASA exploration mission to directly detect and characterize terrestrial exoplanets at visible wavelengths. The TPF-C observatory must be able to distinguish a planet that is more than 10 orders of magnitude fainter than its parent star at a separation of 75 milli-arc-seconds (mas). Coronagraphic detection requires a large aperture telescope to resolve the exoplanet from its star, and extreme stability during detection and characterization observations. This paper discusses the requirements and trade studies leading to the current baseline optical design for the TPF-C telescope. The current baseline design is summarized and its prescription is presented.
Recent progress in the machining of optical surfaces promises to significantly reduce the time and cost of manufacturing optical elements. Specific reference is made to a new kind of machining process called deterministic microgrinding. Optical surfaces made by machining processes like single-point diamond turning, or deterministic microgrinding exhibit residual cutting tool marks that result in scattering effects which can significantly degrade optical performance. However, for some infrared applications, post-polishing may not be required and thus resulting in substantial cost savings. In this paper surface scattering theory has been implemented to model the image degradation effects of residual surface irregularities for optical surfaces exhibiting: i) azimuthal tool marks (diamond turning), ii) radial tool marks (deterministic microgrinding) and, iii) random roughness caused by conventional grinding and polishing. Intercomparison of these three processes provides new insight into the scattering behavior and fabrication tolerances for these very different manufacturing processes.
Scattering effects from residual optical fabrication errors limit the optical performance of many imaging systems. Residual surface roughness over a broad range of relevant spatial frequencies must be specified and controlled for many applications of interest. Wide-angle scatter from surface microroughness severely reduces contrast in extended images. However, small-angle scatter from `mid' spatial frequency surface irregularities that span the gap between the `figure' and `finish' errors will degrade the achievable resolution. Specifying the traditional surface `figure' and `finish' is thus inadequate for high resolution imaging systems or for optical elements fabricated by new automated optical manufacturing processes. A linear systems treatment of surface scatter theory will be presented and its implementation in a computer code for modeling the image degradation effects of residual surface irregularities over the entire range of relevant spatial frequencies will be demonstrated. Parametric performance predictions can then be used to determine realistic optical fabrication tolerances for a variety of applications.
A naturally occurring, conjugate wave phenomenon in monostatic laser imaging applications is caused by reciprocal scattering pas which experience identical phase delays during the double passage of an electromagnetic wave through a random phase screen or turbulent medium. This 'opposition effect' of 'enhanced backscatter' phenomenon is known to be caused by constructive interference between reciprocal multiple scattering paths. Reciprocal path imaging (RPI) is an attempt to exploit this phenomenon for obtaining diffraction-limited images of extended objects obscured by a random phase screen or turbulent atmosphere. We report upon our current effort to investigate RPI with sparse array receivers and its potential as a mechanism for achieving high-resolution imaging through a turbulent atmosphere without the use of adaptive optics for image compensation. Preliminary work is reviewed and several RPI concepts to be evaluated in the laboratory are discussed.
When synthesizing a large aperture with an array of smaller subapertures for high-resolution imaging applications, it is important not only to arrange the subapertures to achieve minimal spatial frequency redundancy, but also to choose the size of the subapertures necessary to achieve the best possible image quality. Spurious, or ghost, images often occur even for nonredundant dilute subaperture arrays. In this paper we show that array configurations producing a uniform modulation transfer function will not exhibit these undesirable ghost images. A method is then presented for constructing both 1D and 2D configurations of dilute subaperture arrays that result in uniform spatial frequency response with arbitrarily high spatial resolution for reciprocal path imaging applications.
This analysis of the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) performance of Wolter type II telescopes as degraded by state-of-the-art optical fabrication errors is motivated by NASA's upcoming Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) mission. The primary goal of the FUSE mission is to perform high resolution spectroscopy in the spectral range of 912 angstroms - 1200 angstroms. The optical performance of the FUSE telescope will degrade drastically toward the EUV and of the spectrum. This image degradation is caused by the scattering effects of residual surface irregularities inherent in the optical fabrication process. NASA's Optical Surface Analysis Code is used to parametrically model the image degradation due to optical fabrication errors over the entire range of relevant spatial frequencies and allows us to determine the optical fabrication tolerances necessary to achieve improved performance in the EUV.
Recent advances in the fabrication of nanometer-scale multilayer structures have yielded high- reflectance mirrors operating at near-normal incidence for soft x-ray wavelengths. These developments have stimulated renewed interest in high-resolution soft x-ray microscopy. The design of a Schwarzschild imaging microscope for soft x-ray applications has been reported by Hoover and Shealy. Based upon a geometrical ray-trace analysis of the residual design errors, diffraction-limited performance at a wavelength of 100 angstrom was predicted over an object size (diameter) of 0.4 mm. In this paper we expand upon the previous analysis of the Schwarzschild x-ray microscope design by determining the total image degradation due to diffraction, geometrical aberrations, alignment errors, and realistic assumptions concerning optical fabrication errors. NASA's optical surface analysis code (OSAC) is used to model the image degradation effects of residual surface irregularities over the entire range of relevant spatial frequencies. This includes small angle scattering effects due to mid spatial frequency surface errors falling between the traditional `figure' and `finish' specifications. Performance predictions are presented parametrically to provide some insight into the optical fabrication and alignment tolerances necessary to meet a particular image quality requirement.
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