We studied the limits of optical reflectance to detect plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs) embedded in air and supported by a glass substrate, in an internal reflection configuration. We used a recently derived multiple-scattering model for the coherent reflectance of a disordered monolayer of particles supported on a flat surface to calculate the sensitivity of optical reflectance variations to the presence of plasmonic NPs. We considered gold and silver NPs with radii up to 50 nm and studied the sensitivity as a function of the angle of incidence, wavelength, particle size, and polarization of light. Using our own measurements of noise, we estimated the minimum detectable surface-coverage by the particles. The highest sensitivity is found around the critical angle between the glass substrate and air, for transverse-magnetic polarization, and at wavelengths of light near the plasmon resonance of the particles. We provide estimates of the minimum number of particles per unit area detectable from reflectivity variations and set the basis for single particle detection.
We explore using measurements of the effective refractive index of a metallic nanofluid to estimate the size of the particles in it. We assume the nanofluid consists of spherical metallic nanoparticles suspended in a transparent base liquid and discuss a way of measuring the real and imaginary parts of the effective refractive index for concentrated nanofluids to about 1% in particles’ volume concentration. Specifically, we consider the case of copper nanoparticles suspended in water. We propose an unambiguous effective optical parameter as a candidate to evidence the particle size, potentially in real time. Limitations due to dependent scattering effects in concentrated nanofluids are briefly stated.
In this work we study the sensitivity and detection limits of optical reflectivity measurements to inspect the deposition of metallic nanoparticles on a at surface. We use a theoretical model for the coherent reflectance of a disordered monolayer of particles to calculate the reflectivity of an air-glass interface with silver and gold nanoparticles deposited randomly on it as a function of the angle of incidence and wavelength of light. Assuming reasonable noise scenarios, we estimate the minimum detectable surface coverage fractions by the nanoparticles.
We present a brief overview of using the effective refractive index of colloidal suspensions for characterizing
nanoparticles. We focus our analysis on the so-called nanofluids consisting of nanoparticles suspended in a homogenous
liquid matrix. Particular attention is paid to the role of the real part of the effective refractive index on sizing the
nanoparticles. We then discuss possible ways to measure the real part of the effective refractive index of nanofluids and
precautions needed.
We investigate the spectral response of capacitive sensors with 28 μm thick Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) films operating in the piezoelectric mode. We present spectra of signals obtained from laser-induced photoacoustic emissions in several materials. We examine the sensor response to direct laser pulses and to ultrasonic signals generated by laser pulses interacting with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) phantoms, neoprene slabs and a composite of PVA phantom with a hidden slab of neoprene. We exhibit the sensor's sensitivity to the phantom thickness, affecting the amplitude and bandwidth of the ultrasonic output signal. The sensors fabricated and tested under water achieved an operational frequency bandwidth ranging from 1 to 50 MHz.
We present a comprehensive derivation of the so-called diffuse to near-normal-viewing reflectance factor of an architectural paint coating and its measurement with an integrating sphere. We focus our attention to the surface correction terms and consider the case when the surface is rough. We point out limits of the standard formula with the so-called Saunderson corrections commonly used for paint coatings. We provide and discuss a corrected definition of the roughness-dependent "gloss factor" needed to describe specular-component excluded measurements. We show that as the roughness of the surface increases, the specular-excluded reflectance-factor increases, approaching its value with the specular-component included.
We describe a fast method for measuring the refractive-index dispersion of transparent and absorbing liquid solutions.
The method is based on measuring the reflectance spectra of an optical beam of white light in an internal reflection
configuration near the critical angle defined by the refractive indices of the incident medium (a glass prism) and that of
the solvent, which is assumed to be transparent. From a few reflectance spectra taken near the critical angle with the pure
solvent and the solution, the dispersion of the contribution to the refractive index of the solute (the sample) can be
obtained. We present results with solutions of Rodamine 6G dissolved in distilled water and in methanol showing the
feasibility of the proposed method.
We present the viability of obtaining the particle size and surface coverage in a monolayer of polystyrene
particles adsorbed on a glass surface from optical coherent reflectance data around the critical angle in an
internal reflection configuration. We have found that fitting a CSM to optical reflectivity curves in an
internal reflection configuration around the critical angle with a dilute random monolayer of particles
adsorbed on the surface can in fact provide the particle's radius and surface coverage once the particles
are sufficiently large.
This work shows that in many practical situations it is possible to obtain the dielectric constant of coatings on
plain conductive substrates by means of a single electrode-sample capacitance measurement without precise
knowledge of its thickness. 3D simulations of spherical electrode-dielectric coating-conductive plain substrate
capacitive system are performed in order to determine theoretically the suitable electrode dimension for a coating thickness range of interest.
In this paper, we propose a method to determine refractive index changes and its dispersion of diluted solutions by
analyzing the refraction of light by a hollow prism containing the medium to be characterized. The system uses a double
prism refractometer to compensate the dispersion of the medium and the output beam is analyzed with a
spectrophotometer resulting in a faster measurement with a simple setup. The system was calibrated using solutions of
sucrose in water. We present experimental results of the characterization and monitoring of water oxidation as an
example of potential applications.
It has been observed in the literature, developments about characterization of several materials for gas sensing
application; simultaneously, also it has been observed that only some of them show a procedure of design for the
implementation of these materials in a device or an optical system. In consequence, appears differences between the
predicted by theory and the experiments. For that reason, the present work proposes a new approach for the design of
optical-integrated (OI) sensors. We show the advances in the design of an OI sensor for ammonia detection (NH3), using
tungsten trioxide (WO3) as sensitive material. We considered a model that incorporates the concepts of the kinetic of gas adsorption on solids, the effects of the real and imaginary part of the refractive index in the redistribution of the optical
field, and the influence of the photo and thermochromism, before and during the sensing mechanism. Although the work
has not been concluded, we can affirm that the concepts incorporated in this proposal, must be considered as critical
parameters in the design of an OI sensor or an optical fiber (FO) sensor.
We propose a simple technique to determine the distance to an object from two passive photometric measurements. The technique offers the possibility of developing fast and inexpensive passive optical range sensors for different applications.
We describe a fast and accurate method for the measurement of refractive index spectra of absorbing layers from transmittance spectra at two angles of incidence. The method is less sensitive to surface conditions than other photometric techniques.
Throughout all this paper we are going to analyze one application of the optical beam deflection method, the procedure for its development, as well as its ideal implementation to reach measurements of displacements that could be the most accurate and of the smaller scale possible, this condition is essential for the magnitude of the results to evaluate. We also give and introduction of the optical beam deflection method, it is characteristics and some of their latest applications as an auxiliary technique on research and commercial fields.
This present work will be analyzed the laser beam deflection technique, the procedure to apply, as well as its ideal implementation in order to obtain measures of displacements that can sense to the most exact and of smaller possible scale, obtaining results from microns, micrometers and until nanometers.
The importance of this work resides in that the technique although is simple and has easy implementation, the results that can hurtle they are very reliable; thanks to it, the laser beam method of deflection has been not only diffused in many fields of the science and the technology of the optics, but also in those where its application is innovating. This has ended up being a technique of huge utility on interdisciplinary use and has been used to measure physical parameters in a great variety of experiments.
We propose a simple technique for determining the refractive indices of highly absorbing materials. This method uses two transmittance measurements at oblique incidence. A theoretical analysis of the proposed method is presented. The refractive index of water was experimentally determined with a relative error ranging from 0.12% to 1.3%. We discuss the extension of this method to spectroscopic measurements.
We present the design of an innovating integrated planar structure adapted for intensity or phase measurements. It is based on the evanescent prism decoupling of the optical signal from a waveguide used as the sensing element. The device is formed by successive thin film sputtering deposition. A TiO2 crystalline layer forms the gas sensing element from which light is coupled out by a planar high refractive index prism. We experimentally validate the structure.
We propose and study a novel optoelectronic device for thermal characterization of materials. It is based on monitoring the photothermal deflection of a laser beam within a slab of a thermo-optic material in thermal contact with the material under study. An optical angle sensor is used to measure the laser deflection providing a simple and compact experimental arrangement. We demonstrate the principle of operation of the sensor and simple procedure that can be used to measure thermal effusivity of liquids. The proposed device could be implemented into a compact sensor head for remote measurements using electrical and fiber optic links.
We present a theoretical study of an erbium-doped optical fiber operating in the superluminescent regime. Experimental results for different pump power levels and fiber length show that the theoretical model could render useful information for predicting parameters such as total output power, spectral bandwidth and optimum fiber length to achieve the superluminescent regime. These types of sources could have direct application in wavelength multiplexed arrangements of fiber sensor, fiber gyroscopes or in general, in any sensors in which a broad wavelength and stable light source is required.
Reflection and transmission of the light in a random medium are composed by coherent and incoherent waves. The coherent one can be modeled as interacting with a medium with effective optical coefficients. In a random dilute suspension, the coherent wave travels in a medium with an effective index of refraction given by the van de Hulst formula. This effective index is, in general, complex. The imaginary part takes into account the loss of the coherent wave due to scattering. Internal reflection, due to random particles in suspension defines a critical angle determined by the
effective index of refraction of the particles in suspension. The curve of reflectivity is smoothed near the critical angle by
the imaginary part of the effective index of refraction. One can show that the diffuse component of the reflection tends to zero at the critical angle. In this work, laser reflectometry near the critical angle is used to study particle adsorption on a flat surface. We monitored the adsorption of polystyrene particles with positive and negative charge in suspension. This method allows the direct measuring of reflectivity and its angle derivative on the prism surface where is formed the film.
In this work we present the development of an optical probe which can be used to measure the absolute value of the real and imaginary parts of the refractive index of transparent, opaque or turbid liquids indistinctly. The device can work as a portable, immersion-type, critical-angle refractometer or as a high resolution optical sensor to monitor physical or chemical processes in liquids. The instrument is based on scanning laser reflectometry and measures the reflectance angular-profile around the critical angle. It also measures directly the angle-differential profile of the reflectivity by dynamic reflectometry. For sensing variations of the RI, one can monitor in time either the reflectance or its angular derivative in the vicinity of the critical angle. The uncertainty of the instrument in measuring the real part of the RI can be 10-6. The sensing resolution can be 10-7 when monitoring the differential reflectivity. When the RI is harmonically modulated in time (of RI), it is possible to achieve a resolution as high as 10-10. The applicability of the technique to turbid media consisting in suspension of particles is briefly discussed. We also show that the RI of liquid sample can be monitored through a physical or chemical process if the liquid is vigorously stirred. Regarding the instrument design, we use a novel mechanism to control the angle of incidence which allows to keep all components fixed (laser, detector, semi-cylindrical lens, angle modulator, and cables), except for a mirror and a collimating lens. It only requires linear displacements, for which a conventional micrometer is enough. This design is a considerable improvement over the typical laboratory arrangement used by several authors, and permits to have a portable, compact instrument with all the capabilities of the laboratory technique. The design offers a wide measurement range as to cover most water solutions. We believe the device offers an acceptable balance between size and stability. We give results obtained with an experimental prototype of the device. The aim of this work is a general overview of the foundations of the technique, the development of the sensor and some applications.
We discuss the use of photo-reflectance near the critical angle (PRCA) to monitor small changes of the RI of highly turbid liquids. The theory of the reflectance of a laser beam near the critical angle for an external medium with a complex RI is summarized. The applicability of PRCA to sense highly turbid media is demonstrated experimentally on bovine milk samples. We give experimental results showing the temporal variation of the refractive index (RI) during three different processes in bovine milk: (1) Mechanical stirring, (2) temperature changes, and (3) pH variations around the isoelectric point of the casein micelles (micelle aggregation). RI changes in the order of a few times 1 X 10-3 are observed during the experiments. The experimental results show that the RI of milk can be used to track physico-chemical changes in time allowing one to measure the time constant of the different process. The design of a compact RI probe for in situ applications is discussed. The miniaturization of such a probe will probably limited by factors other than the loss of sensitivity. A novel angle-of-incidence control which requires only linear displacements of some of the optical components (no rotation) is proposed and shown to be feasible. Such an optical probe may be used in the dairy industry and in general in the food industry or food science research laboratories. It could give additional analytical power to the food scientist, engineer, or technician.
We discuss an optical reflection technique to sense very small variations of the refractive index that can be applied to absorbing and non-homogeneous media. The technique offers the possibility of being integrated, using MOEMS technology into a compact optical probe for a variety of applications, and may be the core for a new class of generic sensors. It consists of AC-modulating the angle of incidence near the critical angle and measuring the reflectivity variations. This technique may be a useful alternative to design a refractive index probe for absorbing and inhomogeneous media were other techniques are strongly limited. The theory necessary to use, develop, and design appropriately these kind of sensors is summarized, and experimental results validating the theory are given. A possible design of a fiber-optic probe based on the modulation of the index of refraction of a micro-prism through the elasto-optic effect is given.
In this paper we analyze the effect of the laser beam divergence on the sensitivity of optical sensors based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) using the Kretschmann configuration. The analysis is done by assuming that a Gaussian beam is employed. Numerical results are presented that show quantitatively the influence of the laser beam's waist on the SPR curve main characteristics. An example using the exact Fresnel coefficient, with optimal parameters reported in the literature is fully analyzed. Our results may be important in the design of SPR optical sensors using fiber or integrated optics.
In this work the Guided Beam Deflection Method is introduced as a potential tool to design a variety of low-cost IO sensors. A theoretical analysis of the propagation and deflection of confined Gaussian beams in slab waveguides is given. The proposed method is compared to interferometric techniques in terms of sensitivity. It is found that both techniques have sensitivities of the same order of magnitude, however, IO beam deflection sensors may be less expensive than interferometric ones.
We investigate theoretically the limits to the resolution imposed by the fundamental optical noises in film-based chemical sensors interrogated by optical reflectometry. We suggest a dynamic reflectometry approach as a possible technique to achieve the ultimate resolution. We find that a theoretical resolution around 1010 absorbed analyte molecules/cm2 is possible in different cases. In the case of conducting films appreciably lower values may be possible.
We study the possibility of improving the theoretical limit to the resolution of the optical beam deflection method (OBDM) by reflecting the beam from a curved surface. We suggest a new detection scheme by measuring the average intensity over a cross section of the beam after it is reflected from a cylindrical mirror. We show that there is a possibility of decreasing the theoretical minimum detectable angle (MDA) as compared to the usual OBDM when the beam grazes the cylindrical mirror.
Immense computational power of today's processors cannot be fully utilized unless appropriate sensors and actuators are developed to link them with the outside world. A method is presented here to compare different sensors with each other and to evaluate their relative merits. Sensors are decomposed into two essential building blocks: a sensor shell and a sensing mean. Eleven different types of sensors, having the same sensing shells, are analyzed and compared to each other.
We investigated the optical power transmission and conversion efficiency between the lower and higher modes in a multimode symmetric Y-junction waveguide. Using the overlap integrals of the fields of the incident and transmitted guided-wave modes at the Y junction, we obtained a first-order approximation of the transmission characteristics and found that there is a possibility of transmitting a useful amount of the incident optical power into the output branching waveguides at very large branching angles. Results showed that an appropriate branching angle of the Y junction can be used to selectively transmit the waveguide modes into the output branches. We developed a very simple model using ray optics to explain the results on a more intuitive basis.
This paper describes the usage of neural networks in the application of speckle patterns, as seen at the output of an optical waveguide, for sensing displacement/force. The neural network trained for displacement values within a 1.5 micrometers range is found to generalize with less than +/- 0.02 micrometers error in the input range. It is found that a functional-link net with 11 functional links and 3 neurons can be trained for a convergence criterion of 1e-05 in less than 3000 iterations. The error in the individual targeted output during training was less than +/- 0.01 micrometers . Thus an integrated-optics sensor is now feasible.
We propose an array of electrostatically driven torsional mirrors for optical signal processing. This 10-element device is 1-dimensional with pixels of 50 micrometers X 250 micrometers . The device is basically a hybrid integrated optical device which is fabricated in silicon and can be integrated with photodetectors and processing electronics to create elements of the so-called 'smart pixel' class of spatial light modulators. This class of devices will find application in many areas of optical processing including optical interconnects, optical switching, optical image analysis and optical neural networks. We discuss the design and fabrication of mirror arrays and electrode strips that are used to actuate them. The resonant frequency and deflection angle v.s. applied voltage of the fabricated devices are measured and compared with theoretical predictions.
A new mode of operation for a high-multimode fiber optical sensor based on the detection of modal interference (speckle sensor) is described. The main mechanism in which the sensor is based is coupling between different modes due to curvature induced upon bending of the fiber. In contrast to previous work, the variation of the length of the fiber under such curvatures may be neglected in this work. A sensor of this kind was implemented and showed a resolution of 10-11 m in displacement and 10-10 N in force. The 'spring' constant of the sensor is relatively small (5.6 N/m) compared to similar sensor. A detailed theoretical analysis of the mechanism involved in the transduction process is given. The potential use of this sensor in atomic force microscopy (AFM) is discussed.
A multimode symmetric Y-junction waveguide is investigated and the optical power transmission and conversion efficiency between the lower and higher modes was calculated. Overlap integrals of the fields of the incident and transmitted guided-wave modes at the Y- junction were used and it is shown that there is a possibility of transmitting up to 29 percent of the incident optical power into the output branching waveguides at very large branching angles. Results show that an appropriate branching angle of the Y-junction can be used to selectively transmit the waveguide modes into the output branches and this can be used advantageously in integrated optic devices. A very simple model using ray optics is developed to explain the results on physical basis. With this simple model we developed a simple framework to interpret the results of the overlap integrals.
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