We examine the potential of a multijunction spectrum-splitting photovoltaic (PV) solar energy system with perovskite PV cells. Spectrum splitting allows combinations of different energy band gap PV cells that are laterally separated and avoids the complications of fabricating tandem stack architectures. Volume holographic optical elements have been shown to be effective for the spectrum-splitting operation and can be incorporated into compact module packages. However, one of the remaining issues for spectrum splitting systems is the availability of low-cost wide band gap and intermediate band gap cells that are required for realizing high overall conversion efficiency. Perovskite PV cells have been fabricated with a wide range of band gap energies that potentially satisfy the requirements for multijunction spectrum-splitting systems. A spectrum-splitting system is evaluated for a combination of perovskite PV cells with energy band gaps of 2.30, 1.63, and 1.25 eV and with conversion efficiencies of 10.4%, 21.6%, and 20.4%, respectively, which have been demonstrated experimentally in the literature. First, the design of a cascaded volume holographic lens for spectral separation in three spectral bands is presented. Second, a rigorous coupled wave model is developed for computing the diffraction efficiency of a cascaded hologram. The model accounts for cross-coupling between higher diffraction orders in the upper and lower holograms, which previous models have not accounted for but is included here with the experimental verification. Lastly, the optical losses in the system are analyzed and the hypothetical power conversion efficiency is calculated to be 26.7%.
Recent research in augmented reality (AR) eyewear has prompted interest in using volume holographic optical elements for this application. However, many sensing operations in AR systems require the use of wavelengths in the near-infrared (NIR) (750 to 900 nm). These wavelengths typically exceed the sensitivity range of available commercial holographic recording materials (450 to 650 nm), which complicates the design of optical elements with power since significant aberrations result when the reconstruction wavelength differs from the construction wavelength. Several methodologies for designing a waveguide hologram imaging system in NIR are reviewed and evaluated. The design approach presented in our work integrates the most effective practices such as fabrication point source location optimization and aberration analysis to realize effective holographic waveguide couplers formed with visible wavelength light and reconstructed in the NIR. The technique is demonstrated by designing and fabricating an input waveguide hologram in conjunction with a multiplexed output coupling hologram. The resulting input/output waveguide holograms can achieve an image resolution of (∼3 lp / mm) with a 0.6-mm-thick glass substrate that has a refractive index of 1.8.
Conventional photovoltaic (PV) modules (exclude interdigitated back contact modules) with silicon or gallium arsenide PV cells often have significant inactive module surface area. This results from wafer cutting techniques and metal contacts that reduce the module’s collection area and the resultant power conversion efficiency. A holographic light collector (HLC) combining a low-cost holographic optical element and a diffuser into conventional PV modules is proposed and evaluated to collect the solar illumination over the inactive module area. The angular tolerance and extra annual energy yield (EY) of the HLC are analyzed. It is found that improvements in EY of 4.5%, 4.1%, and 3.8% can be obtained when PV panels are deployed with two-axis tracking systems, single-axis tracking systems, and without tracking systems, respectively.
Recent research in augmented reality (AR) eyewear has prompted interest in the use of volume holographic optical elements (VHOEs) for this application. This interest in VHOEs is due to a number of factors including: their formation in thin, lightweight films that can be deposited on a variety of substrate; high diffraction efficiency, transparency, and low scatter of the resulting elements; the ability to multiplex several elements in the same aperture; and the potential for mass production by using replication methods. However, a number of design issues must be taken into consideration when using VHOEs especially when used as input and output couplers that have optical power as required for AR eyewear. One such issue is the design of input and output couplers with optical power for use at wavelengths that differ from the construction wavelength. For instance, most photopolymers and dichromated gelating materials are sensitive in the blue-red (450-650 nm) wavelength range but not in the infrared (IR) (750-900nm) where sensing is desired for AR systems. Several methods have been suggested in the literature to address this problem for holographic lenses and vary in the degree of complexity. The problem of making holographic lenses for waveguide input and output couplers at different wavelengths is even more complex due to the need to exceed the critical angle for the construction beams. Fortunately, optical sensing functions frequently do not require high resolution, and this can be used to advantage in the design process. In this paper, a design method is presented that combines wavefront/diffraction efficiency optimization, nonsequential raytracing, and wavefront compensation to form waveguide couplers with an optical power that are formed with a construction wavelength of 532 nm and a reconstruction wavelength of 850 nm. The aberrations caused by Bragg mismatch and the contrast reduction introduced by ghost images are analyzed by simulation and experiment. The experimental results show that an image resolution of ~10 lp/mm can be achieved with the holographic lens with potential improvement to ~40 lp/mm by including a cylindrical lens in the reconstruction beams.
Dichromated gelatin is a photosensitive material that has been used to make volume holographic elements for over 50 years. The film is an ideal material for many applications in volume holography, such as display technologies and photovoltaic systems. The material has high transparency, low scatter, high index modulation capacity, and has bandwidth broadening processes that can be controlled to extend the angular and spectral bandwidth beyond conventional films. The film is suitable for high-volume production since it is inexpensive and can be manufactured using roll-to-roll techniques. The film consists of gelatin interspersed with light-sensitive ammonium dichromate. After exposing with an interference pattern of light, the film selectively bonds in regions with bright fringes. A hologram is formed after a series of chemical baths removes unbonded chromate from the film and forms a modulation in the index of refraction. Unfortunately, the material has a reputation for inconsistency that has driven many researchers and engineers away from using the material more extensively. While many have commented that it is critical to control the environmental humidity and temperature conditions to achieve consistent hologram formation, little work has been done to systematically address the problem or report findings in literature. In this paper we use data taken from hundreds of hologram samples to quantify the “inconsistency” by measuring the variation in diffraction efficiency and Bragg wavelength. We use a partially controlled facility in which the humidity is controlled during the film drying process, but not in any other stage of the process. We show a strong correlation between drying humidity and repeatability and show that 55-65% drying humidity is optimal. Drying the film at 65% humidity compared to 25% improves the repeatability in both Bragg wavelength and diffraction efficiency by nearly 10X.
In this paper a photovoltaic system is proposed that achieves high energy yield by integrating bifacial silicon cells into a spectrum-splitting module. Spectrum-splitting is accomplished using volume holographic elements to spectrally divide sunlight onto an array of PV cells with different bandgap energies. Diffuse sunlight is transmitted through the holographic element and converted. Light that is reflected off the ground surface is incident upon the rear side of the module and converted by the bifacial silicon cells. A diffuse scattering surface is applied to the rear-side of the monofacial wide-bandgap cell to redirect light to the bifacial silicon and increase the light collection. The volume holographic element optimization is automated and practical system design parameters such as concentration and aspect ratio are analyzed. An example using 22.5% efficient silicon and 28.8% efficient GaAs is presented and shows that an energy conversion efficiency of 32.9% can be achieved using typical utility scale illumination parameters. An economic analysis is presented that shows the installed cost per watt can be reduced by over 30% compared to a monofacial silicon panel and can even provide benefit if the cost of the wide-bandgap cell is over 10X the cost of silicon cells.
Traditional silicon photovoltaic modules have some inactive module surface area (IMSA) that are not covered by the solar cells due to the shading of bus bars, finger contacts, and the unused space between the octagonal solar cells. Collecting the solar power falling onto the IMSA will increase the overall energy yield and potentially decrease the $/kW-hr rating for the PV system. Therefore, we proposed a low-cost holographic light management technique which combines the holographic optical elements (HOEs) and a white Lambertian scatter surface. Simulation and comparison are performed for three different light collection systems. The results show that 6.40% more light collection efficiency can be achieved by using HOEs combined with a white scatter surface.
In this paper a spectrum-splitting photovoltaic system is proposed that uses bifacial silicon solar cells to maximize total energy yield. The system is unique in its ability to convert direct sunlight with high-efficiency (<30%) while simultaneously converting diffuse and rear-side irradiance. A volume holographic lens array is used to divide the solar spectrum into spectral bands optimized for conversion by wide-bandgap and bifacial silicon solar cells. An approach for simulating the energy yield, optimizing the holographic lens array, and analyzing the effect of concentration ratio, aspect ratio, and illumination characteristics is described. Design examples for two different solar cell combinations are provided. A GaAs and bifacial silicon combination achieves an energy conversion efficiency of 32.0% and a MgCdTe and bifacial silicon combination achieves a 31.0% energy conversion efficiency. Additional solutions are provided when constraints on concentration ratio and aspect ratio are applied, allowing the designer to balance energy yield with cost and size considerations. The performance of the proposed system is compared to conventional monofacial silicon, bifacial silicon, and monofacial spectrum-splitting modules, and show that improvements in energy yield of over 45%, 25%, and 10% can be achieved, respectively.
Channeled Spectropolarimeters (CHSP) are compact optical instruments that have potential for making precise polarization measurements without any moving parts. While most spectropolarimeters use rotating elements to make measurements, CHSPs use mechanically fixed thick retarders to modulate the Stokes vector onto the spectrum of light. In realistic applications, CHSPs must have calibration algorithms that give stable measurements in a variety of environmental conditions. Previous researchers developed a self-calibration algorithm that uses redundant channel information to compensate temperature-induced phase fluctuations in real-time without any additional reference measurements. In this paper we discuss the stability of the self-calibration technique. We identify a mathematical ambiguity in the algorithm that limits the range of temperatures over which the algorithm is stable. For a 60𝜆:120𝜆 channeled spectropolarimeter with quartz retarders, the stable temperature range is only 27°C and is not suitable for many applications outside of the laboratory. We propose and demonstrate a modified algorithm that uses the slope of the phase to remove the mathematical ambiguity and extend the temperature range of the system. The demonstration shows stable operation over a 41°C temperature range and shows promise for increasing stability over a temperature range suitable for extreme terrestrial conditions.
We discuss practical design constraints for snapshot Mueller matrix spectropolarimeters, and reveal a robustness problem with existing designs. By carefully choosing the ratios of thicknesses between the four thick retarders used in these systems, we can avoid requiring extremely tight tolerances, though at a cost in overall bandwidth. We provide example designs and quantify the robustness-resolution tradeoff.
A replication system and method for fabricating volume hologram arrays is reviewed in this paper. The replication system can be used to fabricate high-efficiency transmission volume holographic lens arrays that are well-suited for spectrum-splitting photovoltaic applications. As in the well-known contact-copy replication technique, the new technique uses a master hologram to generate the desired holographic exposure, however no contact is required with the copy hologram. The object and reference beams for the holographic exposure are generated by discrete “coupling elements” on the master hologram and coupled through a prism to form an interference pattern on the copy hologram. The system can be implemented using relatively inexpensive lab equipment, but also has potential for large-scale production of holographic elements. A prototype system was developed and used to fabricate an experimental holographic lens array with a large aperture (9.6cm X 6cm) and high median diffraction efficiency (95.6%).
The most expensive electrical energy occurs during early morning and late afternoon time periods. This poses a problem for fixed latitude mounted photovoltaic (PV) systems since the sun is low in the sky. One potential solution is to use vertically mounted bifacial PV modules to increase the East-West collection area and solar energy production during high energy usage time periods. However, vertically mounted PV modules have reduced conversion efficiency during mid-day time periods. In this paper the use of a horizontally mounted collector with holographic elements is examined as a way of increasing the energy yield of vertically mounted bifacial PV (VMBP) modules during mid-day time periods. The design of a holographic `cap’ collector is evaluated that considers dimensional constraints, holographic diffraction efficiency characteristics, and system solar collection efficiency properties. The irradiance illuminating the vertical mount is modeled with and without the cap. The design process also includes the optimization of separation between rows of vertically mounted modules and the use of directional diffusers in the proximity of the modules to maximize system energy yield.
Conventional silicon Photovoltaic (PV) modules often have a significant surface obstruction that reduces the collection of incident solar illumination and energy conversion efficiency. In this paper, light management methods that combine low cost holographic optical elements and diffusers into conventional PV modules are evaluated to capture unused illumination. It is found that by using reflection volume holograms (RVHs) with 300 nm spectral bandwidth in combination with a diffuser on a PV module with 12% of its surface area not covered with active PV cell regions that an improvement in power collection efficiency of 9.36% is possible.
The technique of designing, optimizing, and fabricating broadband volume transmission holograms using dichromate gelatin (DCG) is summarized for solar spectrum-splitting applications. The spectrum-splitting photovoltaic (PV) system uses a series of single-bandgap PV cells that have different spectral conversion efficiency properties to more fully utilize the solar spectrum. In such a system, one or more high-performance optical filters are usually required to split the solar spectrum and efficiently send them to the corresponding PV cells. An ideal spectral filter should have a rectangular shape with sharp transition wavelengths. A methodology of designing and modeling a transmission DCG hologram using coupled wave analysis for different PV bandgap combinations is described. To achieve a broad diffraction bandwidth and sharp cutoff wavelength, a cascaded structure of multiple thick holograms is described. A search algorithm is then developed to optimize both single- and two-layer cascaded holographic spectrum-splitting elements for the best bandgap combinations of two- and three-junction spectrum-splitting photovoltaic (SSPV) systems illuminated under the AM1.5 solar spectrum. The power conversion efficiencies of the optimized systems are found to be 42.56% and 48.41%, respectively, using the detailed balance method, and show an improvement compared with a tandem multijunction system. A fabrication method for cascaded DCG holographic filters is also described and used to prototype the optimized filter for the three-junction SSPV system.
In this work, the technique of designing and optimizing broadband volume transmission holograms using dichromate gelatin (DCG) is summarized for solar spectrum-splitting application. Spectrum splitting photovoltaic system uses a series of single bandgap PV cells that have different spectral conversion efficiency properties to more fully utilize the solar spectrum. In such a system, one or more high performance optical filters are usually required to split the solar spectrum and efficiently send them to the corresponding PV cells. An ideal spectral filter should have a rectangular shape with sharp transition wavelengths. DCG is a near ideal holographic material for solar applications as it can achieve high refractive index modulation, low absorption and scattering properties and long-term stability to solar exposure after sealing. In this research, a methodology of designing and modeling a transmission DCG hologram using coupled wave analysis for different PV bandgap combinations is described. To achieve a broad diffraction bandwidth and sharp cut-off wavelength, a cascaded structure of multiple thick holograms is described. A search algorithm is also developed to optimize both single and two-layer cascaded holographic spectrum splitters for the best bandgap combinations of two- and three-junction SSPV systems illuminated under the AM1.5 solar spectrum. The power conversion efficiencies of the optimized systems under the AM1.5 solar spectrum are then calculated using the detailed balance method, and shows an improvement compared with tandem structure.
KEYWORDS: Energy conversion efficiency, Holography, Solar energy, Volume holography, Photovoltaics, Solar concentrators, Solar cells, Gallium arsenide, Holograms, Diffraction
In this paper a prototype spectrum-splitting photovoltaic system based on volume holographic lenses (VHL) is designed, fabricated and tested. In spectrum-splitting systems, incident sunlight is divided in spectral bands for optimal conversion by a set of single-junction PV cells that are laterally separated. The VHL spectrumsplitting system in this paper has a form factor similar to conventional silicon PV modules but with higher efficiencies (>30%). Unlike many other spectrum-splitting systems that have been proposed in the past, the system in this work converts both direct and diffuse sunlight while using inexpensive 1-axis tracking systems. The VHL system uses holographic lenses that focus light at a transition wavelength to the boundary between two PV cells. Longer wavelength light is dispersed to the narrow bandgap cell and shorter wavelength light to the wide bandgap cell. A prototype system is designed with silicon and GaAs PV cells. The holographic lenses are fabricated in Covestro Bayfol HX photopolymer by ‘stitching’ together lens segments through sequential masked exposures. The PV cells and holographic lenses were characterized and the data was used in a raytrace simulation and predicts an improvement in total power output of 15.2% compared to a non-spectrum-splitting reference. A laboratory measurement yielded an improvement in power output of 8.5%.
In this study the impact of outdoor temperature variations and solar illumination exposure on spectral filter material and holographic optical elements is examined. Although holographic components have been shown to be useful for solar spectrum splitting designs, relatively little quantitative data exist to demonstrate the extent to which these materials can withstand outdoor conditions. As researchers seek to investigate practical spectrum splitting designs, the environmental stability of holographic materials should be considered as an important factor. In the experiment presented, two holographic materials, Covestro Bayfol HX photopolymer and dichromated gelatin, and 3M reflective polymer filter materials are exposed to outdoor conditions for a period of several months. The environmental effect on absorption, spectral and angular bandwidth, peak efficiency, and Bragg matching conditions for the holograms are examined. Spectral bandwidth and transmittance of the 3M reflective filter material are also monitored. Holographic gratings are recorded, measured, and mounted on glass substrates and then sealed with a glass cover plate. The test samples are then mounted on a photovoltaic panel to simulate realistic temperature conditions and placed at an outdoor test facility in Tucson, Arizona. A duplicate set of holograms and 3M filter material is stored as a control group and periodically compared over the test period.
Spectrum splitting is an approach to increasing the conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) system. Several methods can be used to perform this function which requires efficient spatial separation of different spectral bands of the incident solar radiation. In this paper several of holographic methods for implementing spectrum splitting are reviewed along with the benefits and disadvantages associated with each approach. The review indicates that a volume holographic lens has many advantages for spectrum splitting in terms of both power conversion efficiency and energy yield. A specific design for a volume holographic spectrum splitting lens is discussed for use with high bandgap InGaP and low bandgap silicon PV cells. The holographic lenses are modeled using rigorous coupled wave analysis, and the optical efficiency is evaluated using non-sequential raytracing. A proof-of-concept off-axis holographic lens is also recorded in dichromated gelatin film and the spectral diffraction efficiency of the hologram is measured with multiple laser sources across the diffracted spectral band. The experimental volume holographic lens (VHL) characteristics are compared to an ideal spectrum splitting filter in terms of power conversion efficiency and energy yield in environments with high direct normal incidence (DNI) illumination and high levels of diffuse illumination. The results show that the experimental VHL can achieve 62.5% of the ideal filter power conversion efficiency, 64.8% of the ideal filter DNI environment energy yield, and 57.7% of the ideal diffuse environment energy yield performance.
This paper presents a segmented parabolic concentrator employing holographic spectral filters that provide focusing and spectral bandwidth separation capability to the system. Strips of low band gap silicon photovoltaic (PV) cells are formed into a parabolic surface as shown by Holman et. al. [1]. The surface of the PV segments is covered with holographic elements formed in dichromated gelatin. The holographic elements are designed to transmit longer wavelengths to silicon cells, and to reflect short wavelength light towards a secondary collector where high-bandgap PV cells are mounted. The system can be optimized for different combinations of diffuse and direct solar illumination conditions for particular geographical locations by controlling the concentration ratio and filtering properties of the holographic elements. In addition, the reflectivity of the back contact of the silicon cells is used to increase the optical path length and light trapping. This potentially allows the use of thin film silicon for the low bandgap PV cell material. The optical design combines the focusing properties of the parabolic concentrator and the holographic element to control the concentration ratio and uniformity of the spectral distribution at the high bandgap cell location. The presentation concludes with a comparison of different spectrum splitting holographic filter materials for this application.
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