The effects of optical feedback on a terahertz (THz) quantum-cascade vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting laser (QC-VECSEL) are investigated via self-mixing. A nominally single-mode 2.8 THz QC-VECSEL operating in continuous-wave is subjected to various optical feedback conditions while monitoring variations in its terminal voltage associated with self-mixing. Due to its large emitting aperture, and flat highly-reflective output coupler, the VECSEL architecture is found to be strongly susceptible to optical feedback. Regions of instability are observed, as is evidence of multiple roundtrip re-injection within the feedback cavity.
RF modulation of the injected current at the cavity round trip frequency is a viable path towards multi-mode operation in a THz metasurface quantum-cascade VECSEL. Under weak RF modulation, pulling and locking of the round-trip frequency to the injected RF signal is observed; under strong RF modulation, broadening of the lasing spectrum with a maximum observable bandwidth as large as 300 GHz is demonstrated. It is shown that the injection locking behavior is sensitive to the cavity length (varied between 35-50 mm), as well as the presence of optical feedback. Long-travel FTIR measurements enable resolution of the lasing modes.
There have been only few reports of THz QC-lasers operating over 5 THz, and none operating in CW mode. As the laser frequency increases, it approaches the Reststrahlen band (8-9 THz in GaAs) which increases the optical losses and degrades the gain. Here, we discuss design strategies to improve operating temperature for THz QCLs targeting 5.3-5.6 THz. These strategies are investigated numerically using a Non-equilibrium Green’s Function solver. We demonstrate a metal-metal waveguide emitting in 4.76 – 6.03 THz with pulsed and CW operating temperature of 117 K and 68 K, respectively, and modes up to 5.71 THz in CW mode.
In this talk, we present direct optical injection locking of a 2.5 THz quantum-cascade VECSEL with a 2.5 THz electronic source, namely a diode frequency multiplier chain (FMC). The FMC outputs ~10 µW of power and locks a QC-VECSEL with ~1 mW output power over a ~300 GHz bandwidth. The high-resolution spectral properties of the QC-VECSEL are monitored with a subharmonic diode mixer, and a locked linewidth of ~1 Hz is observed with a signal-to-noise ratio of ~40 dB, in good agreement with the spectral properties of the FMC injected signal.
Progress towards broadband active mode-locked operation of terahertz metasurface Quantum-Cascade (QC) Vertical External Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VECSELs) is presented. First we show that broadband gain over a 1.1 THz bandwidth (centered at 3.5 THz) can be obtained from coupled-resonator QC amplifying metasurfaces. Second we show multi-mode operation can be encouraged by using a specially designed output coupler to compensate for the frequency dependent metasurface gain. Third, we show that injecting a strong RF tone onto the laser bias current at a frequency near the cavity round trip frequency induces multimode lasing over a 290 GHz bandwidth and stabilizes the round-trip frequency.
Terahertz (THz) quantum-cascade VECSELs are strong candidates for frequency-agile local oscillators for next generation heterodyne instruments for astrophysical observations. In this work, a THz QC-VECSEL with a tuning range of 2.48 THz to 2.95 THz (17% fractional) is demonstrated. Additionally, the effects of the output coupler are studied since the frequency dependent reflectance of the output coupler causes variation in the laser properties with tuning. To suppress Fabry-Perot oscillations, a silicon output coupler with an etch-based anti-reflective coating is demonstrated.
We demonstrate a THz quantum-cascade vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting laser (QC-VECSEL) based on a disordered amplifying metasurface. One-dimensional disorder is introduced into the metasurface by pseudo-randomly varying the width of uniformly spaced ridge antennas. A mid-sized QC-VECSEL was characterized as a function of its external cavity length. In general, short cavities exhibited more modes: as many as seven were observed. Typical beam patterns were overall circular, albeit with several hot spots. We hypothesize that extending the disorder to two dimensions and increasing the metasurface size should increase the mode number by at least a factor of 10.
RF injection locking of a terahertz Quantum-Cascade Vertical-External-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (QC-VECSEL) is demonstrated. The intra-cryostat focusing VECSEL cavity design allows continuous wave lasing in an external cavity length over 30 mm with a round-trip frequency near 5 GHz. Strong RF current modulation is applied to the QC-metasurface near the cavity round-trip frequency; this broadens the THz emission spectrum from a single mode to multi-mode operation around a 200 GHz spectral width. Round-trip frequency pulling and locking to the injected RF signal is observed.
We present recent progress in developing THz QC-VECSELs for use as local oscillators for heterodyne receivers in the 2-5 THz frequency range. The QC-VECSEL is a recently developed external cavity configuration for making THz quantum-cascade lasers (QCLs) with high power, excellent beam quality, and broadband frequency tunability. We discuss electrical frequency tuning characteristics of the QC-VECSEL, sources of noise in the free-running output frequency, and phase-locking to a stable microwave reference (subharmonic diode mixer). We also discuss progress in increasing operating temperature and reducing power consumption of the QC-VECSEL by means of reducing the thickness of the QC-gain material.
We report advances in the development of THz quantum-cascade metasurface VECSELs intended for use as local oscillators in terahertz heterodyne receiver instruments for astrophysical investigation of the interstellar medium. First, by using a patch-based amplifying metasurface we obtain QC-VECSEL lasing with milliwatt output power at 4.6 THz with reduced power consumption less than 1 W. Second, we report the phase locking of a QC-VECSEL at 3.4 THz to a microwave reference using a Schottky diode mixer. Finally, we report efforts and challenges to scale down the lasing frequency of the VECSELs to 1.9 THz.
A terahertz quantum-cascade VECSEL is demonstrated to exhibit multi-mode operation, despite the fact that spatial-hole burning is nominally suppressed within the amplifying metasurface. A specially designed output coupler mirror is used such that large numbers of modes have nearly identical lasing thresholds. Up to nine lasing modes with a FSR of approximately 21 GHz are demonstrated – a significant increase from previous QC-VECSELs in which only 2 or 3 modes have been observed to lase at once. This work is an intermediate step towards eventually demonstrating THz QC-VECSELs as broadband incoherent emitters or frequency combs.
Changing the length of the cavity is perhaps the simplest way to tune the wavelength of a laser, but is almost never used for continuous tuning over a large fractional range. This is because, to avoid multi-mode lasing and mode hopping, the cavity must be kept optically short to ensure a large free-spectral-range compared to the gain bandwidth of the amplifying material. The metasurface VECSEL architecture is shown to be an effective approach for widely tunable lasers based upon cavities that operate on low-order longitudinal modes. Since the gain resides in the amplifying reflectarray metasurface, and not a bulk medium, there is no gain/loss penalty to making the cavity length wavelength scale. Fractional tuning of a THz quantum-cascade laser up to 25% is observed in a multi-mode regime, and up to 19% in a single-mode regime with high quality beam pattern. We discuss the fundamental limits to broadband single-mode tuning using this approach.
The VECSEL architecture is shown to be an effective approach for building THz quantum-cascade lasers with scalable watt-level output power in a high quality beam pattern. The enabling component is a “metasurface” made up of sub-wavelength arrays of antenna-coupled sub-cavities loaded with quantum-cascade active material. By using a sub-cavity antenna based upon a third-order resonance (rather than a first order resonance), metasurfaces with higher fill factors are demonstrated which are suitable for large output powers. Watt-level pulsed output powers have been demonstrated in a single mode, with tunability achieved by intra-cryostat tuning of the cavity length.
The terahertz quantum-cascade (QC) VECSEL is a recently demonstrated approach to designing single-mode terahertz lasers based on the coupling of an amplifying reflect-array metasurface with an external optical cavity. The QC-VECSEL has demonstrated single-mode terahertz lasing with high output power and near-diffraction limited beam quality. The QC-VECSEL is also a natural candidate for demonstrating broadband, continuous, single-mode frequency tuning as the VECSEL’s lasing frequency is determined by the length of the its external cavity, which can be mechanically tuned. In this work, we use a piezoelectric translational stage to actively adjust the length of the QC-VECSEL’s external cavity and demonstrate >500 GHz of single-mode tuning around a center frequency of 3.5 THz (>20% fractional tuning). High-quality, circular beam patterns are observed with a divergence angle of ~15° throughout the tuning range, and tens of milliwatts of peak terahertz output power are observed. In order to maintain single mode behavior, the external cavity is made to be extremely short, increasing the spacing between the external cavity’s neighboring longitudinal resonances. Cavity lengths as short as 250 µm have been studied, but the free-spectral range of the external cavity could not be made larger than the gain bandwidth of the metasurface, providing testament to the bandwidth of both the metasurface and the QC-gain material.
Terahertz quantum-cascade lasers based upon active reflectarray metasurfaces are shown to be a viable platform for scalable power with high-quality beams. The “metasurface” is made up of sub-wavelength arrays of antenna-coupled sub-cavities loaded with quantum-cascade active material. One has the ability to spatially engineer the amplitude, phase, spectral, and polarization response of the metasurface. We present several recent results. By placing the metasurface as part of external cavity, focusing QC-VECSELs have been demonstrated with high slope efficiency, high cw power, and near diffraction-limited beam quality. Additionally, VECSELs with electrically switchable polarization have been demonstrated.
Quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) exploit radiative intersubband transitions within the conduction band of semiconductor heterostructures. The wide range of wavelengths achievable with QCLs, from mid-infrared to terahertz range, leads to a large number of applications including absorption spectroscopy, optical countermeasures and free space communications requiring stable single-mode operation with a narrow linewidth, high output power and high modulation bandwidth. Prior work has unveiled the occurrence of temporal chaos in a QCL subjected to optical feedback, with a scenario involving oscillations at the external cavity frequency and low-frequency fluctuations. The purpose of this work is to further investigate the temperature dependence of a mid-infrared QCL with optical feedback. When the semiconductor device is cooled down to 170K, experiments unveil that the laser destabilization appears at a lower feedback ratio and that the chaotic bubble slightly expands owing to a different carrier lifetime dynamics. These results are of paramount importance for new mid-infrared applications such as chaos-encrypted free-space communications or unpredictable countermeasures.
Achieving high power in combination with high quality beam pattern is a ubiquitous challenge for semiconductor lasers. The demonstration of vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VECSELs) in 1997 for visible and near-infrared semiconductor lasers has been a very successful approach. Terahertz (THz) quantum-cascade (QC) lasers, also have the challenge of combining high power and good beam pattern into one device – even more so because they typically use sub-wavelength metallic waveguides. The concept of VECSEL has been impossible to implement for QC lasers, since the optical gain is based on intersubband transitions of electrons, which only interact with the electric field polarized perpendicular to the quantum wells plane according to the "intersubband selection rule". To address this issue, we have developed an amplifying metasurface reflector that can couple the incident THz wave with the QC gain medium via metal-metal micro-cavity antenna reflectarray. Pairing the active metasurface with an output coupler, we demonstrated the first VECSEL in the THz regime in 2015. Based upon the prototype design, we have achieved a number of improvements to the QC-VECSEL including designing an inhomogeneous focusing metasurface to achieve a near-diffraction limited beam pattern with M2 = 1.3 and high brightness of 1.86×106 Wsr-1m-2, designing compact cavities and optimizing metasurface bias area to achieve continuous-wave operation above 77 K, achieving record high slope efficiency of 745 mW/A, as well as extending the VECSEL concept to cover a broad frequency range from 2.5 - 4.4 THz.
Terahertz quantum-cascade vertical external cavity surface emitting laser (VECSELs) are made possible through the development of amplifying reflectarray metasurfaces. The metasurface is made up of sub-wavelength arrays of antenna coupled sub-cavities loaded with quantum-cascade active material. The QC-VECSEL approach allows scaling of laser power while maintaining a high quality, near diffraction limited beam - something which has been a long standing challenge for THz quantum-cascade lasers with sub-wavelength metallic waveguides. The latest results of cavity and metasurface engineering are presented, including the demonstration of a focusing reflectarray metasurface that enables a "flat-optics" hemispherical VECSEL cavity, with improved geometric stability and a Gaussian profile beam with beam quality parameter of M2=1.3.
Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VECSELs) have been successfully used in the visible and near-infrared to achieve high output power with excellent Gaussian beam quality. However, the concept of VECSEL has been impossible to implement for quantum-cascade (QC) lasers due to the "intersubband selection rule". We have recently demonstrated the first VECSEL in the terahertz range. The enabling component for the QC-VECSEL is an amplifying metasurface reflector composed of a sparse array of metallic sub-cavities, which allows the normally incident radiation to interact with the electrically pumped QC gain medium. In this work, we presented multiple design variations based on the first demonstrated THz QC-VECSEL, regarding the lasing frequencies, the output coupler and the intra-cavity aperture. Our work on THz QC-VECSEL initiates a new approach towards achieving scalable output power in combination with a diffraction-limited beam pattern for THz QC-lasers. The design variations presented in this work further demonstrate the practicality and potential of VECSEL approach to make ideal terahertz QC-laser sources.
Terahertz quantum cascade (QC) lasers are well suited for the exploration of active metamaterial concepts in the
terahertz frequency range. Terahertz composite right/left handed (CRLH) transmission line metamaterials can be
integrated with quantum cascade laser gainmaterial in order to compensate for losses, and enable laser waveguides
with new functionality. In particular, we consider the use of metamaterial transmission lines as travelling
wave antennas. After presenting the characteristics of a 2.5 THz quantum-cascade laser, calculated radiation
characteristics and beam patterns for a leaky-wave antenna based upon a balanced 1D CRLH transmission line
waveguide are shown.
We summarize recent development of terahertz quantum-cascade lasers (QCLs) based on a resonant-phonon
active region design and metal-metal waveguides for mode confinement. Maximum pulsed operating temperature
of 169 K is demonstrated for a 2.7 THz design. Lasers processed with the semi-insulating surface-plasmon (SISP)
waveguides and the metal-metal (MM) waveguides are experimentally compared. Whereas the SISP waveguides
have higher out-coupling efficiencies, the MM waveguides demonstrate improved temperature performance owing
to their lower-loss and near unity mode confinement; however, this comes at the cost of poor radiation patterns
and low output power. The beam quality and the out-coupling efficiency of the MM waveguides is shown to be
significantly improved by abutting a silicon hyperhemispherical lens to the cleaved facets of ridge lasers. Whereas
peak pulsed power of 26 mW at 5 K was detected from a 4.1 THz laser without the lens (device Tmax = 165 K),
the detected power increased to 145 mW with the lens with only a 5 K degradation in the maximum operating
temperature (device Tmax = 160 K).
We summarize recent results in the development of terahertz quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) based on resonant-phonon
active region designs. First, we describe attempts to improve high-temperature operation of terahertz QCLs by the use
of double-phonon depopulation in order to prevent thermal backfilling of the lower radiative state. While the best of the
three tested devices displayed a threshold current density of Jth=170 A/cm2 at 5 K and lased up to 138 K in pulsed
mode, no temperature advantage was observed compared to single-phonon designs. Also, we describe high power
operation of two different THz QCLs that emit up to 248 mW (pulsed) and 135 mW (continuous-wave) at 4.3-4.5 THz,
and 75 mW (pulsed) at 4.8-5.0 THz.
Terahertz (1 - 10 THz) quantum-well photodetectors and quantum- cascade lasers have been investigated. The design and projected detector performance are presented together with experimental results on several test devices, all working at photon energies below the optical phonons. Background limited infrared performance (BLIP) operations were observed for all samples (three in total) designed for different wavelengths. For lasers, a set of THz quantumcascade
lasers with identical device parameters except for the doping concentration has been studied. The δ-doping density for each period was varied from 3.2 × 1010 to 4.8 × 1010 cm-2. We observed that the lasing threshold current increased monotonically with doping. Moreover, the measured results on devices with different cavity lengths provided evidence that the free carrier absorption caused waveguide loss also increased monotonically. Interestingly however, the observed maximum lasing temperature displayed an optimum at a doping density of 3.6 × 1010 cm-2.
Quantum cascade lasers that operate in the underdeveloped terahertz spectral range (1-10 THz) promise to contribute to applications in sensing, spectroscopy, and imaging. We describe our development of terahertz quantum cascade lasers based on the resonant-phonon depopulation concept and that use low-loss metal-metal waveguides for optical confinement. Two- and three-dimensional finite-element simulations of terahertz metal-metal waveguides are used to demonstrate their high modal confinement even for very
narrow ridges. Also, simulations predict high facet reflectivities due to the modal impedance mismatch with free space
at the sub-wavelength waveguide aperture of these metal-metal waveguides. Finally, we report the demonstration
of a 2.8 THz laser that operates up to 97 K in continuous-wave mode fabricated using a Cu-Cu thermocompression bonding technique.
The recent extension of quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) from the mid-infrared to the terahertz frequency range (1-10 THz) promises to help address the relative lack of compact, coherent radiation sources in this spectral regime. We report our recent development of terahertz QCLs based on a resonant phonon depopulation scheme coupled with high-confinement, low-loss, metal-metal waveguides for mode confinement. A 3.2 THz laser (λ≈ 93.4 μm) is presented that operates in continuous wave mode up to a temperature of 93 K and up to 133 K in pulsed mode. Also presented is a 2.1 THz laser (λ ≈ 141 μm) that lases up to 40 K in continuous wave mode and 72 K in pulsed mode.
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