In the past few years, CEA LETI demonstrated MCT P on N photodiodes arrays achieving high level of detection for very low flux astronomy in the short wave infrared (SWIR), with dark currents values as low as 3 10−3 e-/s/pixel at 100K and high quantum efficiency. Persistence was also a key element to monitor for the development of this technology, and significant improvements were demonstrated in the frame of ALFA program. From this reference technology, LETI developed a brand new P on N process, focused on decreasing defectiveness and improving low frequency stability for MWIR high operating temperature (>130K) detectors for tactical application. In this spectral range, low noise stability is characterized by Random Telegraph Signal (RTS) and noise distribution tail. In the SWIR range, persistence would be the best signature to probe this low frequency stability. Declining this new generation process for the SWIR range, we present and discuss on dark current and persistence characterization on TV format 15μm pixel pitch study array designed for SWIR low flux application.
For several years, LETI and Lynred (within DEFIR common laboratory) has been working on a new version of its P/N structure. This new generation (NG) process flow is a complete overhaul of the MCT P/N fabrication, focusing on lowering process induced defects in the narrow gap absorbing material. It is therefore specifically designed to optimise second order figures of merit such as stability, BSFR, RTS pixels. Until now, this technology has been intensively focused on MWIR band for high operating operation [ ][ ][ ], with 7.5µm pixel pitches, for tactical applications. This work results in very interesting performance FPA demonstrations for the next generation of MCT MWr detectors at 130K and even at 150K. We now investigate the possibility to adapt this NG flow to longer wavelength such as LW (9.3µm@80K). First arrays exhibit almost no distribution tails, and measured dark currents remain very low down to very low temperatures (below 100e/s at 40K). This paper also intend to discuss the potentiality of this NG structure for the VLWIR (15µm@65K) band intended to address future space applications for earth observations.
For several years, CEA-LETI has worked on the development of IR MCT detectors for low flux applications in scientific imaging. MCT has remarkable material properties that allow for highly performing detection, with high QEs and minimal dark currents. Currently, both Teledyne US and LETI-Lynred in France achieve dark currents in the range of a fraction of e/s/pixel for NIR imaging, utilizing the p-on-n extrinsic diode structure, for astronomy applications. As part of the NEOCAM project, Teledyne has demonstrated the ability to extend the cut-off wavelength to significantly longer wavelengths (10.3μm and recently 13μm) while keeping the dark current in the e/s range. Furthermore, LETI is presently enhancing its p-on-n technology to satisfy the demanding specifications of low-flux applications. Achieving very low dark current leakage and large diode polarisation plateaus is required to achieve SFD input stage ROIC operation and to reach such low dark current values. This entails the mitigation of tunnelling currents that appear in low-gap materials. In this report, we present the production of a 15μm pitch TV-size prototype array that operates in the LW range (8μm @ 35K). Dark current values as low as 0.5 e/s/pixel have been measured below 40K, and will be discussed.
LYNRED is a leading global provider of high-quality II-VI, III-V and bolometers infrared detectors for the aerospace, defence and commercial markets. Our vision is to preserve and protect, and provide the right technology to customers’ needs. To consolidate our position among infrared detector manufacturer leaders and to enable us to respond to growing market demand for next-generation infrared technologies, a new state of the art industrial facility is breaking ground. This new industrial site named Campus will double the current cleanroom footprint and increase production capacity with optimal cleanliness classification for new high-performance products.
Among these next generations technologies, Campus will serve the ongoing developments of sub-10μm pitch cooled infrared detectors, MCT HOT technology, for extended MW band and III-V HOT MW blue band technology.
We will discuss in this paper the true figures of merit that have to be addressed during technology development and optimization to meet field mission requirements. We will then review latest results on II-VI and III-V HOT IDDCA (Integrated Detector Dewar Cryocooler Assembly) with 7.5μm pitch SXGA format focal plane array in terms of low frequency noise defects, stability and reproducibility of residual fixed pattern noise (RFPN) and Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) optimizations while maintaining high quantum efficiency to keep highest possible range.
One limitation of dark current for HOT HgCdTe MWIR detector is diffusion current related to Auger generation mechanisms. However, this limit can be overcame using a fully depleted P-i-N diode structure. On the way toward PIN structures, we discuss on the impact of Auger suppression on partially fully-depleted photodiodes. Indeed, we report dark current evolution with temperature following a diffusion trend line but also a dark current decreasing when increasing the applied voltage in the temperature range 120-180K on the same detector. If the SRH current in the space charge region is very low, an Auger suppression mechanism should result in a decrease of the total dark current when depleting a larger volume of the pixel on such detector. This hypothesis could match with the reported dark current data obtained on detectors manufactured at CEA LETI and Lynred. They are based on p/n diodes, 7.5μm pitch arrays connected as 2x2 super-pixels to a 15μm pitch ROIC (640x512 VGA format).
MCT p-on-n photodiodes manufactured at Lynred and CEA-LETI have demonstrated state of the art performances for HOT applications. On blue and red mid infrared bands on 15μm pixel pitch, respectively 150 and 130K operating temperatures have been obtained, due to diffusion limited dark current and low defectivity. To achieve equivalent results on smaller pixel, the p-on-n technology at DEFIR, joint laboratory between Lynred and CEA-LETI, has been improved. The technological process was modified to ensure a proper diode formation and to efficiently passivate the interface between MCT and encapsulation layers, especially in the vicinity of the space charge region. The manufactured arrays with a 5.3μm cutoff wavelength have been hybridized on a digital output SXGA (1280×1024) direct injection ROIC with a pixel pitch of 7.5 μm. This paper present the measured current, blackbody responsivity and RMS noise on FPAs with F/4 numerical aperture. We will also discuss spectral response, quantum efficiency, shot-noise limited photodiodes and noise histograms shapes and their distribution tails at 130K. The very low number of defective pixel allow to address higher operating temperature and measurements have been performed at 140K and even 150K with very limited performance degradation. Pixel pitch of 5 μm has been characterized on test chips and present I-V curves with low dispersion and long bias plateau. As for larger pixel sizes, these photodiodes are shot-noise limited. Modulation transfer function has been measured by electron beam induced current and presents high value, up to 56%.
KEYWORDS: Modulation transfer functions, Diodes, Mercury cadmium telluride, Monte Carlo methods, Diffusion, Point spread functions, Photons, Staring arrays, Electron beams, Scanning electron microscopy, Infrared detectors, Pixel resolution
Today, the trend line in cooled infrared detector manufacturing is to go towards very small pixel pitches and to operate at high temperatures. To take full advantage of this pitch reduction, the modulation transfer function (MTF) has to be correctly measured to optimize the development of HgCdTe p/n planar diodes, where the MTF is degraded due to the large diffusion length of minority carriers. Furthermore, as the pitch decreases close to the wavelength, the measurement of its MTF becomes difficult using traditional optical projection methods, which are intrinsically limited by diffraction. In order to assess this MTF, an original characterization method is therefore investigated at LETI, involving an electron beam instead of an optical beam to excite the pixels: the electron beam induced current (EBIC). This method introduces a low MTF degradation (estimated by Monte Carlo simulations) on the measurements that can be neglected, thus giving access to a direct estimation of the pixel MTF, with no need for deconvolution. This work shows EBIC measurements carried out on HgCdTe planar diodes with small pixel pitches: 7.5μm and 5μm. The resulting MTF is compared with MTF computed by finite-element modeling using an electronic and photonic excitation.
LYNRED is oriented towards excellence in II-VI, III-V and bolometers technologies, covering all Society’s needs in term of infrared detection. Our vision is to preserve and protect, and more than ever, our goal is to provide the right technology to the field missions, spatial and industrial applications, and more generally the right technology to customers’ needs. For this purpose we are developing for the next generation pitch, MCT HOT technology, for extended MW band as well as III-V HOT MW blue band technology. Many challenges have to be addressed for future small pitch, large format and HOT detectors. Electrical and optical crosstalks as well as image quality and stability, are one of the prime concern for detectors with pixel pitch below 10μm. We will discuss about the trade-off between the different material properties and detector performances to ensure mandatory minimization of Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference (MRTD) for range optimization. We will then review latest 7.5μm pitch development at LYNRED, with SXGA formats, based on II-VI and III-V HOT materials, in terms of operability, residual fixed pattern noise (RFPN) and Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) optimizations.
The program Astronomy European Infrared Detector (ASTEROID), funded by the European Union through H2020 (under Grant Agreement n°730161), aims at enabling Europe to acquire the technology and knowledge necessary to manufacture 2k² high performance IR detectors. To reach these goals 9 detectors have been manufactured at Lynred and characterized at the Astrophysics Department of CEA. ASTEROID detectors are 640×512 pixels arrays with a pixel pitch of 15 μm. The detectors are p-on-n technology, with 15 μm pixel pitch, with a cut-off wavelength of 2.1 μm. In the detector architecture, the MCT light-sensitive layer is hybridized on a Source Follower Detector (SFD) Read Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC) via indium bumps. In this paper, the characterization results of ASTEROID detectors will be presented. The best detectors show extremely low dark current around 0.001 e-/s/pix, which is equivalent to standard H2RG IR detector (widely used in the IR domain for astrophysics applications). The quantum efficiency (QE) of these detectors has also been measured on a dedicated test bench and will be presented. ASTEROID detectors demonstrated a QE of 70 %.
For several years now, LYNRED, CEA-LETI and CEA-IRFU have been involved in the development of large area, very high performance NIR retinas for astronomy, in the context of the ALFA program (Astronomical Large Format Array). It aims at demonstrating the ability to produce in Europe low flux 2kx2k arrays exhibiting the very high performances required by science applications. In this context, high performance means very low dark current (below 0.1 e/s/px) with high QE (above 80%). LETI and LYNRED succeeded this year in the fabrication of a 2kx2k array, with very high uniformity as characterized at IRFU. One of those arrays will be used on the CAGIRE camera of the SVOM mission, aiming at observing afterglows of gamma ray bursts. Additional studies are ongoing on test arrays manufactured with the same technology to assess the behavior of this technology in terms of persistence and radiation hardness for space use.
SWAPc (Size, Weight And Power-cost) is a strong trend in IR imaging systems. It requires focal plane arrays with smaller pixels, operating at high temperatures. For MW systems, the full spectral band (up to 5μm) shows a strong advantage over the blue band (4.1µm) as it maximizes the number of incoming photons from a room temperature scene. Few years ago, LETI and Lynred have been developing 7.5μm pitch MCT arrays in MW full band. The first version of this technology was based on n/p diodes operating at 110K maximum temperature. Switching to p/n using extrinsic doping allows today an important gain in dark current, enabling operating temperature up to 130K or even higher. This paper will describe our latest results in the design and fabrication of such HOT small pitch arrays, starting with test chip arrays, followed by the full the characterization of 1280×1024 7.5μm pitch arrays. First order figure of merit (dark current, QE…) are of course considered, but second order figure of merit will also be discussed such as noise tails.
HgCdTe is very unique material system for infrared (IR) detection. In combination with its lattice matched native substrate CdZnTe, this semiconductor alloy allows to address the whole infrared (IR) band, from the near IR (NIR, 2?m cutoff) to the middle wave IR (MWIR, 5μm cutoff), the long wave IR (LWIR, 10μm cutoff), up to the very long wave IR (VLWIR, cutoffs larger than 14μm).
Space applications are requiring low dark current in the long wave infrared at low operating temperature for low flux observation. The applications envisioned with this type of specification are namely scientific and planetary missions. Within the framework of the joint laboratory between Sofradir and the CEA-LETI, a specific development of a TV format focal plane array with a cut-off wavelength of 12.5μm at 40K has been carried out. For this application, the p on n technology has been used. It is based on an In doped HgCdTe absorbing material grown by Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) and an As implanted junction area. This architecture allows decreasing both dark current and series resistance compared to the legacy n on p technology based on Hg vacancies. In this paper, the technological improvements are briefly described. These technological tunings led to a 35% decrease of dark current in the diffusion regime. CEA-LETI and Sofradir demonstrated the ability to use the p on n technology with a long cutoff wavelength in the infrared range.
HgCdTe (MCT) is a very versatile material for IR detection. Indeed, the ability to tailor the cutoff frequency as close as
possible to the detection needs makes it a perfect candidate for high performance detection in a wide range of
applications and spectral ranges. Moreover, the high quality material available today, either by liquid phase epitaxy
(LPE) or molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) allows for very low dark currents at low temperatures and make it suitable for
very low flux detection application such as science imaging. MCT has also demonstrated its robustness to aggressive
space environment and faces therefore a large demand for space application such as staring at the outer space for science
purposes in which case, the detected photon number is very low This induces very strong constrains onto the detector:
low dark current, low noise, low persistence, (very) large focal plane arrays. The MCT diode structure adapted to fulfill
those requirements is naturally the p/n photodiode. Following the developments of this technology made at DEFIR and
transferred to Sofradir in MWIR and LWIR ranges for tactical applications, our laboratory has consequently investigated
its adaptation for ultra-low flux in different spectral bands, in collaboration with the CEA Astrophysics lab. Another
alternative for ultra low flux applications in SWIR range, has also been investigated with low excess noise MCT n/p
avalanche photodiodes (APD). Those APDs may in some cases open the gate to sub electron noise IR detection.. This
paper will review the latest achievements obtained on this matter at DEFIR (CEA-LETI and Sofradir common
laboratory) from the short wave (SWIR) band detection for classical astronomical needs, to the long wave (LWIR) band
for exoplanet transit spectroscopy, up to the very long waves (VLWIR) band.
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