Fabry-Perot nanocavities are widely used in nanophotonic applications due to their exceptional electromagnetic properties and subwavelength dimensions. The spectral response of these nanocavities is primarily governed by the separation between the reflecting mirrors and the refractive index of the spacer material. In this study, we present dynamic control over the resonance wavelength of a Fabry-P´erot nanocavity by incorporating an n-type doped indium antimony (n-InSb) layer as a tunable semiconductor within the nanocavity spacer. To achieve dynamic tuning, we exploit the sizable nonlinear response of the plasma frequency of the n-InSb as a function of electron concentration. The accumulation of electrons by applied voltage within a sublayer of n-InSb in a metal-oxide-semiconductor-oxide-metal nano structure enables a variation in total phase delay of the Fabry-Perot nanocavity. This facilitates a maximum effective optical modulation of about 91% at reasonably low applied voltage. The study predicts a 95 nm blue shift in a visible frequency Fabry-Perot resonance. The study also provides details on the carrier dynamics of n-InSb at applied voltage on one or both metal surfaces.
The High-Energy Replicated Optics to Explore the Sun (HEROES) program is a balloon-borne x-ray telescope mission to observe hard x-rays (∼20 to 70 keV) from the sun and multiple astrophysical targets. The payload consists of eight mirror modules with a total of 114 optics that are mounted on a 6-m-long optical bench. Each mirror module is complemented by a high-pressure xenon gas scintillation proportional counter. Attached to the payload is a camera that acquires star fields and then matches the acquired field to star maps to determine the pointing of the optical bench. Slight misalignments between the star camera, the optical bench, and the telescope elements attached to the optical bench may occur during flight due to mechanical shifts, thermal gradients, and gravitational effects. These misalignments can result in diminished imaging and reduced photon collection efficiency. To monitor these misalignments during flight, a supplementary Bench Alignment Monitoring System (BAMS) was added to the payload. BAMS hardware comprises two cameras mounted directly to the optical bench and rings of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) mounted onto the telescope components. The LEDs in these rings are mounted in a predefined, asymmetric pattern, and their positions are tracked using an optical/digital correlator. The BAMS analysis software is a digital adaption of an optical joint transform correlator. The aim is to enhance the observational proficiency of HEROES while providing insight into the magnitude of mechanically and thermally induced misalignments during flight. Results from a preflight test of the system are reported.
In this work, we describe the development of multilayer coating capabilities of the X-ray astronomy group at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). A DC magnetron sputtering system has been constructed to deposit periodic, depth-graded and aperiodic multilayer coatings on flat silicon and glass substrates of various diameters. The main goal of this new area of research at MSFC is the development of coatings for use on future hard X-ray astronomical telescopes, extending the reflected energy range into the hard X-ray to soft gamma ray band. Descriptions of the system geometry and calibration process as well as initial results from the first few months of deposition and coating recipe optimization are presented.
A useful laboratory technique has been devised using commonly available optical hardware and software to accurately measure the eye’s response to flashing light-emitting diode (LED) sources. A simplified version of the modified Allard technique is implemented using a silicon detector, a digital multimeter, and Labview® software to collect and analyze the data. Using calibrated radiometric measurements, the method presented allows quantifying, in photopic units, the human eye’s response to these sources. The procedure first requires exact conversion of irradiance measurements from radiometric to photopic units and this is done; however, during the study, it was determined that for LEDs with narrow spectra, this conversion can be simplified using an approximation. This involves taking the spectral form of the LED to be a delta function situated at its peak wavelength, which makes the conversion from watts to lumens a simple multiplication by the luminous efficiency, η(λ) value at that peak wavelength. For LEDs with a full width at half maximum of 20 nm or less, this approximation is found to be accurate to ±5% throughout the visible range.
Exploratory research has been conducted with the aim of completely determining the polarization signatures of selected particulates as a function of wavelength. This may lead to a better understanding of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and such materials, perhaps leading to the point detection of bio-aerosols present in the atmosphere. To this end, a polarimeter capable of measuring the complete Mueller matrix of highly scattering samples in transmission and reflection (with good spectral resolution from 300 to 1100 nm) has been developed. The polarization properties of Bacillus subtilis (surrogate for anthrax spore) are compared to ambient particulate matter species such as pollen, dust, and soot. Differentiating features in the polarization signatures of these samples have been identified, thus demonstrating the potential applicability of this technique for the detection of bio-aerosol in the ambient atmosphere.
A polarimeter capable of measuring the complete Mueller matrix of highly scattering samples in transmission
and reflection from 300 to 1100 nm has been constructed and tested. Exploratory research has been conducted
which may lead to the standoff detection of bio-aerosols in the atmosphere. The polarization properties of bsubtilis
(surrogate for anthrax spore) have been compared to ambient particulate matter species such as
pollen, dust and soot (all sampled onto microscope slides) and differentiating features have been identified.
The application of this technique for the discrimination of bio-aerosol from background clutter has been
demonstrated.
A differential deposition technique was investigated as a way to minimize axial figure errors in full-shell, grazing-incidence, reflective x-ray optics. These types of optics use a combination of off-axis conic segments-hyperbolic, parabolic, and/or elliptical, to reflect and image x-rays. Several such mirrors or "shells" of decreasing diameter are typically concentrically nested to form a single focusing unit. Individual mirrors are currently produced at Marshall Space Flight Center using an electroforming technique, in which the shells are replicated off figured and superpolished mandrels. Several factors in this fabrication process lead to low- and mid-spatial frequency deviations in the surface profile of the shell that degrade the imaging quality of the optics. A differential deposition technique, discussed in this paper, seeks to improve the achievable resolution of the optics by correcting the surface profile deviations of the shells after fabrication. As a proof of concept, the technique was implemented on small-animal radionuclide-imaging x-ray optics being considered for medical applications. This paper discusses the deposition technique, its implementation, and the experimental results obtained to date.
A dual rotating retarder Mueller matrix polarimeter is described that operates in the UV-VIS-NIR region. The
components were selected to allow the instrument to seamlessly span the 300-1100 nm region with a
resolution of 2 nm or higher. Complete Mueller matrix polarimetric characterizations of a host of optical
components have been performed and a select few will be presented. This instrumentation is expected to
enable exploratory research into novel methods for point and standoff detection of chemical and biological
threats in the atmosphere. To this end, surrogates of hazardous materials as well as background aerosols must
be characterized and differentiating features in the polarization properties correlated to specific morphologies.
Investigations specific to this application is underway.
A laboratory based technique has been devised for measuring the illumination characteristics of flashing
light emitting diode (LED) sources. The difference between the photopic measurement of a continuous
source and a flashing source is that some analytic method must be incorporated into the measurement to
account for the response of the eye. Ohno et al have devised an analytic expression for the impulse
response of the eye, which closely matches existing forms used for finding effective intensity1. These other
forms are the Blondel-Rey equation, the Form Factor method, and the Allard method.4,5,6 Ohno's research
suggests a modified Allard method, but offers no procedure for actually making the measurement. In this
research, the modified Allard1 method approach has been updated using standard laboratory equipment
such as a silicon detector in conjunction with a digital multi-meter and Labview® software to make this
measurement. Labview® allows exact computation of the modified Allard method. However, an
approximation scheme for the conversion from radiometric units to photopic units must be adopted. The
LED spectral form is approximately a Gaussian line shape with full width at half maximum of about 15 to
30nm. The Gaussian curve makes converting from radiometric to photopic units difficult. To simplify, the
technique presented here estimates the spectral form of the LEDs to be a Dirac delta function situated at the
peak wavelength. This allows the conversion from watts to lumens to be a simple application of the
luminous efficiency curve.2 For LEDs with a full width half maximum of 20nm, this scheme is found to be
accurate to ± 5%.
Currently, no infrared scene projector technology has the ability to simulate the real-world, high-dynamic-range temperatures encountered by modern infrared imagers. This paper presents the application of type II W-quantum-well diode lasers used in a high-radiance mid-infrared-emitting object plane in an effort to develop the first truly high-dynamic-range infrared scene projector. The observed dynamic-range capability simulates 250 K apparent background temperature to 1100 K maximum apparent temperature for inband mid-wave 3 to 5 µm radiance. In the presented research a linear array of high-power continuous-wave mid-infrared diode lasers and a high-speed optical polygon scanner were used to produce two-dimensional projected images. The ability to simulate high apparent temperatures was the direct result of luminescent infrared radiance emitted by the diode lasers. The simulation of the low background apparent temperatures was obtained by enclosing the entire projector system in an environmental chamber operating at 232 K. The apparent temperature of the infrared scene projector was calculated analytically and compared with the measured results. Sample imagery from the high-dynamic-range infrared scene projector is also given.
A CO2 laser of 300 ns pulse length, operating at 10.6 μm wavelength and from 1-4 J pulse energy was used to ablate
carbon-doped Delrin® (polyoxymethylene, or POM) targets in a set of conical aluminum minithrusters at standard
temperature and pressure. Nozzles with lengths ranging from 0.5 - 5 cm were used (corresponding to expansion ratios of
about 4 to 16), as well as a bare sample with no nozzle. A piezoelectric force sensor was used to record the imparted
impulse for fluences in the range of 1-100 J/cm2 for each thruster. The effect of increasing the expansion ratio on the
impulse generation for single pulse laser propulsion experiments will be described. The study will also clarify the effect
of confining air from an ambient atmosphere in augmenting impulse generation.
The fluence dependence of the laser ablation of selected polymers was studied within the range from 1-150 J/cm2. A
TEA CO2 laser operating at 10.6 μm with 300 ns main pulse length and up to 20 J pulse energy was used to ablate
prepared polymer samples with single pulses of laser energy. Measurements of parameters such as the ablated mass per
spot area (Δma), momentum coupling coefficient (Cm), specific impulse (Isp), and internal efficiency (ηi) will be plotted
as functions of fluence. Critical threshold effects observed throughout the experiments will be described in detail.
The potential for buildup of formaldehyde in closed space environments poses a direct health hazard to personnel. The
National Aeronautic Space Agency (NASA) has established a maximum permitted concentration of 0.04 ppm for 7 to
180 days for all space craft. Early detection is critical to ensure that formaldehyde levels do not accumulate above these
limits. New sensor technologies are needed to enable real time, in situ detection in a compact and reusable form factor.
Addressing this need, research into the use of reactive fluorescent dyes which reversibly bind to formaldehyde (liquid or
gas) has been conducted to support the development of a formaldehyde sensor. In the presence of formaldehyde the
dyes' characteristic fluorescence peaks shift providing the basis for an optical detection. Dye responses to formaldehyde
exposure were characterized; demonstrating the optical detection of formaldehyde in under 10 seconds and down to
concentrations of 0.5 ppm. To incorporate the dye in an optical sensor device requires a means of containing and
manipulating the dye. Multiple form factors using two dissimilar substrates were considered to determine a suitable
configuration. A prototype sensor was demonstrated and considerations for a fieldable sensor were presented. This
research provides a necessary first step toward the development of a compact, reusable, real time optical formaldehyde
sensor suitable for use in the U.S. space program.
Wheatstone invented the first stereoscopic display on record in 1834. Numerous approaches to the display of stereo imagery have been demonstrated since; however, all suffer from various drawbacks. Stereoscopic displays typically require the user to wear special headgear. Autostereoscopic displays typically have tight limitations on the position of the viewer's head. We investigate an architecture consisting of two readily available, inexpensive twisted nematic liquid crystal display (TN-LCD) panels sandwiched together to form a compact, rugged stereoscopic display. We describe the theory of operation, the experimental determination of the liquid crystal display modulation characteristics, and modifications to the theory of operation, as a consequence of the experimental results.
Bidirectional reflectance distribution function measurements of optical surfaces both before and after molecular contamination have been done using UV, VUV, and visible light. Molecular contamination of optical surfaces from outgassed material has been shown in many cases to proceed from acclimation centers, and to produce many roughly hemispherical “islands” of contamination on the surface. The products of this outgassing will inevitably migrate throughout the surrounding area and adhere to any convenient surface, including optical elements in the system.
A pose search algorithm is used in conjunction with a bank of binary phase only filters (BPOF's) to determine the pose of a craft in a docking scenario. This approach is facilitated by the use of a high speed spatial light modulator (SLM) capable of operating at ~ 4 kHz integrated into a VanderLugt type optical correlator. The filters are generated using images created from a 3D model of a craft and 3D animation software. The pose estimation is calculated using a computer interfaced to the optical correlator via a Matlab developed algorithm that captures the image frame and performs a series of correlations from a subset of filters selected by the algorithm from the filter bank.
Molecular contamination of optical surfaces from outgassed material has been shown in many cases to proceed from acclimation centers and to produce many roughly hemispherical "islands" of contamination on the surface. The mathematics of the hemispherical scattering is simplified by introducing a virtual source below the plane of the optic, in this case a mirror, allowing the use of Mie theory to produce a solution for the resulting sphere in transmission. Experimentally, a fixed wavelength in the vacuum ultraviolet was used as the illumination source and scattered light from the polished and coated glass mirrors was detected at a fixed angle as the contamination islands grew in time.
There is a continuous demand for larger, lighter, and higher quality telescopes. Over the past several decades, we have
seen the evolution from launchable 2 meter-class telescopes (such as Hubble), to today's demand for deployable 6
meter-class telescopes (such as JWST), to tomorrow's need for up to 150 meter-class telescopes. As the apertures
continue to grow, it will become much more difficult and expensive to launch assembled telescope structures. To
address this issue, we are seeing the emergence of new novel structural concepts, such as inflatable structures and
membrane optics. While these structural concepts do show promise, it is very difficult to achieve and maintain high
surface figure quality. Another potential solution to develop large space telescopes is to move the fabrication facility
into space and launch the raw materials.
In this paper we present initial in-space manufacturing concepts to enable the development of large telescopes. This
includes novel approaches for the fabrication of the optical elements. We will also discuss potential optical designs for
large space telescopes and describe their relation to the fabrication methods. These concepts are being developed to
meet the demanding requirements of DARPA's LASSO (Large Aperture Space Surveillance Optic) program which
currently requires a 150 meter optical aperture with a 16.6 degree field of view.
A method is derived from Kepler's laws of motion allowing the determination of slant range for orbiting targets
given monocular angles-only measurements. The method is shown to work without knowledge of three parameters:
universal gravitational constant, mass of the central body, and time scale. Monte Carlo trials with noisy data sets,
however, show that the method is much more sensitive to measurement noise than competing methods that require
knowledge of these parameters.
An accurate determination of fluid flow in a cryogenic propulsion environment is difficult under the best of circumstances. The extreme thermal environment increases the mechanical constraints, and
variable density conditions create havoc with traditional flow measurement schemes. Presented here are secondary results of cryogenic testing of an all-optical sensor capable of a mass flow measurement by directly interrogating the fluid's density state and a determination of the fluid's velocity. The sensor's measurement basis does not rely on any inherent assumptions as to the state of the fluid flow (density or otherwise). The fluid sensing interaction model will be discussed. Current test and evaluation data and future development work will be presented.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Light emitting diodes, Digital signal processing, Data communications, Signal processing, Signal detection, Electro optical systems, Receivers, Metals, Resistance
A slip ring is a rotary electrical interface, collector, swivel or joint. It is a component
or architecture that can perform continuous data transfer between a rotary and
stationary structure. A few of the numerous approaches for transferring data include
contact and non-contact methods which use wires, radio waves, optical fibers and
even liquid as the transfer media. However, they all suffer inherent drawbacks in
durability, reliability, stability, electromagnetic interference and speed. The system
introduced in this paper alleviates many of these issues by employing a wireless
through the air optical solution.
Pressure sense lines, as employed in the measurement of rocket engine test firings, can propagate the time-domain pressure signal out of hostile regions and allow instrumentation with pressure transducers. In such applications, it is necessary to correct the data to account for attenuation and resonance due to the sense line. One technique for doing so is the application of Fourier transform theory to obtain the transfer function of the sense line. Various techniques for obtaining the transfer function are explored, including the use of Gaussian noise, single frequency sweeps, and impulse signals as input functions. The transfer function thus obtained is mathematically fit, scaled, and validated against a related system.
Established optical correlation techniques will be applied to the problem of pose estimation of spacecraft for autonomous rendezvous and docking. The problem is substantially similar to the recognition and tracking of hostile targets in military applications. The historically deep knowledge base in this area will be exploited for the current investigation so that important discoveries will not have to be reinvented. It is expected that this problem should be somewhat better behaved since the "target" is cooperative and not actively in opposition to being found or recognized. The goal of this
investigation is to determine the parameters of interest and to construct somewhat meaningful demonstrations of techniques that could be used for this optical approach to a computationally intense digital problem.
We predict the propagation of slow and fast light in two co-resonant coupled optical resonators. In coupled resonators, slow light can propagate without attenuation by a cancellation of absorption as a result of mode splitting and destructive interference, whereas transparent fast light propagation can be achieved by the assistance of gain and splitting of the intracavity resonances, which consequently change the dispersion from normal to anomalous. The effective steady-state response of coupled-resonators is derived using the temporal coupled-mode formalism, and the absorptive and dispersive responses are described. Specifically, the occurrence of slow light via coupled-resonator-induced transparency and gain-assisted fast light are discussed.
Any system that will aid the military pilot in directing fire or sensors or aid in the stabilization of imagery that is captured by the aircraft's sensors would substantially increase the pilot's effectiveness. Several optical techniques are described in this presentation for determining the orientation and position of a pilot's helmet, which is actually one of the first requirements in accomplishing the tasks just listed. These techniques are all passive in that they require no input from the pilot except perhaps for an initial calibration, which would likely be valid for a particular pilot for any subsequent flight. The problem of determining the position and orientation of a pilot's helmet can be thought of as determining the position and orientation of a vector that starts at the center of the pilot's head and points forward. If we take this vector to be of a fixed (arbitrary) length, the problem reduces to the determination of five independent variables. Several techniques are investigated that range from the very simple, direct view and map approach to complicated routines involving color mixing, optical correlation, time of flight measurements, intensity gradients, and fiber optic gyroscopes. All of these approaches work. The true goal of this investigation is to define the problem physically and mathematically, and to analyze all of the approaches and ultimately determine the advantages and disadvantages of each before much laboratory equipment has been dedicated and other expensive equipment purchased.
A unique solar thermal chamber has been designed and fabricated to produce the maximum concentration of solar energy and highest temperature possible. Its primary purpose was for solar plasma propulsion experiments and related material specimen testing above 3000 Kelvin. The design not only maximized solar concentration, but also, minimized infrared heat loss. This paper provides the underlining theory and operation of the chamber and initial optical correlation to the actual fabricated hardware. The chamber is placed at the focal point of an existing primary concentrator with a 2.74-meter (9 foot) focal length. A quartz lens focuses a smaller sun image at the inlet hole of the mirrored cavity. The lens focuses two image planes at prescribed positions; the sun at the cavity's entrance hole, and the primary concentrator at the junction plane of two surfaces that form the cavity chamber. The back half is an ellipsoid reflector that produces a 1.27 cm diameter final sun image. The image is 'suspended in space' 7.1cm away from the nearest cavity surface, to minimize thermal and contaminate damage to the mirror surfaces. A hemisphere mirror makes up the front chamber and has its center of curvature at the target image, where rays leaving the target are reflected back upon themselves, minimizing radiation losses.
The projection slice filter is modified to include a noise cancellation algorithm for applications to real data with cluttered noise. The wavelet transform has been utilized in the color noise estimation process. The results of the application of these new techniques to the processing of real data with significant clutter components is reported. The techniques used here are part of an ongoing effort to improve the performance of correlation-based systems for fast recognition scenarios.
The area of information processing has grown dramatically over the last 50 years. In the areas of image processing and information storage the technology requirements have far outpaced the ability of the community to meet demands. The need for faster recognition algorithms and more efficient storage of large quantities of data has forced the user to accept less than lossless retrieval of that data for analysis. In addition to clutter which is not the object of interest in the data set, often the throughput requirements forces the user to accept 'noisy' data and to tolerate the clutter inherent in that data. It has been shown that some of this clutter, both the unavoidable clutter (clouds, trees, etc.) as well as the noise introduced on the data by processing requirements can be modeled as fractal or fractal-like. Traditional methods, using Fourier deconvolution on these sources of noise in frequency space, lead to loss of signal and can, in many cases, completely eliminate the target of interest. One parameter used to characterize fractal-like noise, the fractal dimension, has been investigated and fractal dimension images are presented.
Spatial light modulators used as inputs to optical correlators often modulate both the amplitude and phase of the coherent illumination. This means that matched filters commonly used are not truly matched to the scenes displayed on these modulators. Filters are normally calculated from an assumed amplitude-only input. A few analytically manageable examples are given which demonstrate the errors that can occur and suggestions are made for using the phase modulating characteristics to an advantage.
The combination of a high resolution charge-coupled device camera and a phase modulating liquid crystal array allows real-time holographic (interference) fringes to be detected and displayed. The original object may then be reconstructed optically. A modified Mach-Zehnder (Leith-Upatnieks) architecture is utilized for producing the required small object-to-reference beam angle. The hologram is updated and reconstructed at television field rates. Several analog reconstructions are presented as examples of the performance of the simple system. If the input scene is optically Fourier transformed, the system may be used to produce real-time Fourier transform matched filters. These filters can be displayed immediately in an optical correlator for pattern recognition applications.
One of the problems in the implementation of the Projection- Slice filter is the reduction of redundant information during filter synthesis. The wavelet transform is utilized to minimize the information redundancy. The method for this type of filter synthesis is discussed and simulation results of the algorithms involved are presented.
In this paper the projection-slice SDF (PSDF) filter for rotation invariant response is discussed for pattern recognition applications. This method uses one half of a slice of the Fourier transform of the object to generate the transfer function of the filter. This is accomplished by repeating the half slice in the Fourier domain through 2(pi) radians about the zero-frequency point of the Fourier plane. This filter has the advantage of always matching at least one half of a slice of the Fourier transform of any rotation of the image. An analytical discussion of the filter transfer function and impulse response are presented along with simulated correlation results for a particular target scene including decoys. These results are evaluated using the peak correlation value, peak correlation energy, and the Fisher metric for performance.
The optical characteristics of organically modified silicates (ORMOSILs) are discussed. The absorption spectra of ORMOSIL samples undoped and doped with pyrromethene 580 were measured and compared. The doped sample was utilized in an oscillator/amplifier experiment. Output energies on the order to two millijoules were observed and an amplifier gain of 1.44 was measured.
The projection-slice theorem, often used in tomographic applications for medical imaging, is utilized in conjunction with the SDF concept to implement a distortion-invariant filter. The marriage of these two well-known fields results in an effective tool for invariant pattern recognition. 1D filtering and phase-only techniques are used to implement the projection-slice synthetic discriminant function filter, which is then compared with bench-mark filters, such as the SDF filter and the matched filter in both complex and phase- only forms for a particular set of images.
Experimental investigating the possibility of optical processing through turbulent media were investigated and a model for turbulence is discussed. A technique for creating an optical device to display the turbulence model real-time is introduced and a technique for removing the turbulence is demonstrated.
This paper discusses a method for reconstructing images using a joint transform optical correlator (JTC) architecture. The architecture employs a single liquid crystal television (LCTV) as the spatial light modulator (SLM) operating only on the phase of the incident coherent light. The wavelet transform (WT)-based image decomposition and synthesis is performed in the transform plane instead of the correlation, or wavelet transform plane. While the method presented here does not yield a true reconstruction in the strictest sense, it has many useful characteristics. Experimental results are presented as well.
Interferometric techniques have been employed by a number of investigators to determine the phase modulating characteristics of popular spatial light modulators. The technique works well but requires the set-up and operation of a sensitive interferometer. A non-interferometric technique is presented for determining the phase modulating characteristics of spatial light modulators. Examining the far field diffraction pattern distribution for specific input functions allows the phase modulation to be calculated. The degree of phase modulation appears in the Fourier transform as an intensity modulation which can be measured. Results are compared with usual interferometric techniques for a liquid crystal based modulator.
This paper discusses the combination of the wavelet transform with the scale invariant Mellin transform in an optical joint transform correlator (JTC) architecture. A mathematical and numerical analysis are presented with three optical designs for performing the Mellin-wavelet joint transform.
Experiments investigating the possibility of optical processing through turbulent media were performed. A liquid crystal television (LCTV) operating in a phase-mostly mode was utilized to simulate turbulence. A phase-switching interferometric technique for removing the phase distortion created by the turbulence was also investigated.
This paper addresses some of the performance issues associated with performing the wavelet transform (WT) using the joint transform correlator (JTC), specifically the phase-only JTC (POJTC). The current POJTC architecture, called the POWJTC, utilizes a single liquid crystal television (LCTV) as a spatial light modulator (SLM) operating only on the phase of the incident coherent light. Many JTC-based WT architectures have used hard-clipped bandpass filters as wavelet functions, filtering the joint transform power spectrum (JTPS) to enhance the correlation SNR for two inputs (not including the wavelet). It has been demonstrated that, by encoding the wavelet and the object to be analyzed in the input plane of the POJTC, a true WT, in the sense that the WT is a correlation integral, can be achieved. However, the correlation output contains many more terms than the normal amplitude-only JTC (AOJTC) that may affect the performance, and there are restrictions associated with this encoding process. A mathematical description based on scalar fields, accompanied by simulations and experimental results, is presented.
Self-organization of light into a hexagonal spot array and its rotation using photorefractive KNbO3:Fe is investigated. Furthermore two-beam coupling configurations are employed to obtain the phase conjugate image and edge extraction of an object using photorefractive KNbO3:Fe. Finally, the self-organization is utilized to broadcast an input object to the location of each of the spots.
Fractals have been used successfully in generating missing information in scene reconstruction. If this information is processed using coherent optical techniques, then it is important to understand the properties of the Fourier transforms of fractals. Since fractals with square or rectangular bases are representative of pixel structures found on most electrically adressed spatial light modulators, a square-based fractal has been generated and its far field diffraction pattern calculated. The properties of the resulting Fourier spectrum are discussed.
This research involved the set-up and demonstration of an optically addressed hologram writing experiment. The bulk of the research was devoted to determining the most efficient architecture and optical devices. Results indicate that the overall goal could be accomplished with the right spatial light modulator and the right geometry to allow the spot size needed for holographic recording.
This paper focuses on the experimental combination of two topical technologies: (1) the joint transform correlator (JTC) and (2) the wavelet transform (WT). The result is an optical wavelet processor utilizing liquid crystal televisions (LCTV) as phase-only spatial light modulators (SLM) in a JTC architecture. The mathematical formalism of the optical wavelet processor is presented followed by simulations involving amplitude- and phase-only SLM operation.
In this paper, a multichannel optical wavelet processor and a matching pursuit processor capable of enhancing the detection of cluttered targets are presented. Wavelet functions have zero-mean and are virtually band-pass filters. In many cases, targets and clutter are separable in the spatial spectral domain. Therefore, by selecting wavelet functions that represent features of targets but are insensitive to that of clutter, targets can be extracted from the input scene while clutter is suppressed. Due to dyadic sampling, a multichannel optical wavelet processor with a limited number of channels can detect regions of interest for different targets. With matching pursuit decomposition, features of targets are extracted and represented in a few wavelets known as coherent structure; whereas clutter and noise are diluted across the dictionary. Clutter and noise can then be effectively removed from the signal by a simple thresholding operation. A time-frequency energy distribution can be derived from matching pursuit decomposition, which contains no interference terms and thus clearly characterized the input signal in the time-frequency plane. Optical architectures of these processors are described. Simulated and experimental results are provided.
Theory concerning the use of liquid crystal televisions as phase modulators in 4f correlators is presented. A computer simulation of a 4f correlator is presented. The simulation depicts the response of a 4f system to matched and phase-only filters calculated for amplitude- and phase-only inputs,
Measurements have been made of the phase modulation and polarization rotation of some commercially available rewriteable magneto-optic compact disks (RMOCDs). The disks were then used in an optical processor (joint transform correlator) as spatial light modulators.
The wavelet transform is applied to signal processing of synthetic aperture radar and techniques for determining the range, cross-range, and rotation of the target as well as adaptive process for better resolution are studied. We also optically implement the wavelet transform in the laboratory for real-time processing of radar data, and describe methods for adaptive processing.
A system employing three acousto-optic cells and a small laser has been constructed which transforms a stereo image, provided by two identical cameras, into a range sensitive translation of an optical beam.
The wavelet transform is applied to signal processing of synthetic aperture radar, and techniques for determining the range, cross-range, and rotation of the target are studied. The wavelet transform was also implemented optically in the laboratory for real-time processing of the radar data.
Liquid crystal televisions have become increasingly popular as low-cost spatial light modulators. While the early devices suffered from poor resolution and low contrast, recent models compare favorably to the more traditional (and expensive) modulators. One of the most recent LCTVs is found in the InFocus TVT-6000 television projector. The panels in this projector have 480 X 440 pixels with a 1.32' diagonal clear aperture. A wavefront splitting interferometer has been constructed and analyzed for measuring the complex characteristics of these modulators, including phase and amplitude coupling. The results of this evaluation will be presented.
An experimentally based technique is presented which improves the signal to noise ratio in the detector plane of an optical correlator. The technique utilizes off-line processing by a digital computer at the current stage, but optical and hybrid architectures can be envisioned which would allow the processing to be done in real time (speed of detector).
Commercially available rewritable magneto-optic compact disks are utilized as input spatial light modulators in a hybrid optical/digital joint transform correlator and in a purely optical correlator. Identical images are written on two disks using a commercially available optical disk drive, and good auto-correlation signals were obtained.
The polarization properties of a TVT-6000 LCTV have been investigated. Mueller matrices of multiple ray paths through the TVT-6000 were measured for a single (typical) pixel, and through several pixels, using an imaging polarimeter. The TVT-6000 was characterized as a function of applied voltage and angle of incidence. From the Mueller matrices, the spatially dependent retardance, diattenuation, and depolarization are calculated and displayed as topographic maps. In another set of measurements, the LCTV is illuminated with a plane wave, and the spatial distribution of polarization in the Far Field Diffraction Pattern is measured in Mueller matrix form.
An off-axis joint transform optical correlator architecture has been developed which utilizes a novel transmission type photoconductive organic polymer (POP) spatial light modulator. The arrangement allows the writing of `phase only' power spectra within the modulator. The off- axis architecture also allows the separation of the correlation signals from the unavoidable transmission of the writing beams through the modulator. Experimental results are presented during this communication.
A polychromatic optical neuro-computer for color pattern recognition with cascaded liquid crystal televisions (LCTV) is presented. Extension of this neural net to multichannel operation is proposed and preliminary experimental results are presented.
Interest in the liquid crystal television (LCTV) kinoform has been reported recently by several investigators. The technique requires a modulation depth of about 2π, which most of the commercially available LCTVs cannot attain. We discuss an experimental study of generating an LCTV kinoform in which the the modulation depth is limited by π. The major drawbacks of the ir phase variation are that, compared with 2π variation, it reduces the diffraction efficiency as well as the space bandwidth product to a degree of about one-fourth. Verification of these findings is reported.
The joint transform correlation can be optimized by subtracting the constant terms (Fourier transform power spectra) in the filter plane. Computer simulations for three approaches to optimization have been performed and have shown that the contrast of joint transform power spectrum can be maximized to produce optimal correlation signal.
The TOPS optical correlator program will demonstrate the capability for optical processors to perform target recognition and tracking tasks. This paper describes the demonstration to be performed. Operational considerations such as system complexity, reprogrammability, and throughput are discussed. Growth of these type systems and long term prospects are examined.
A simple target which contains a wide variety of spatial frequencies has been developed for use in testing optical correlators. This target is designed to be complicated enough to provide an adequate test of many correlator and filter architectures, but yet simple enough to be used by researchers without the need for special equipment. Computer simulations and experimental results are presented for using the target in testing some correlator filter designs.
Quantex's electron trapping (ET) materials are investigated as an integrated spatial light modulator (SLM) at the filter plane in a joint transform correlator (JTC). The ET based spatial light modulator can detect visible incoherent light, store an image pattern, and modulate the incoming coherent infrared light. Such a JTC architecture eliminates the electronic-to-optical and optical-to-electronic conversion between the square law detector and the next SLM in a joint transform correlator.
Extremely light efficient optical correlators can be built if both the input and filter are displayed on phase modulating devices. Problems may exist, however, since changes in the input scene intensity cause changes in the phase encoding. An analysis is presented here for the VanderLugt correlator architecture. Experimental results comparing the correlator response to phase-encoded and amplitude-encoded inputs are also presented for varying input scene intensities.
The amplitude- and phase-modulating properties of liquid crystal televisions (LCTVs) are becoming increasingly well known. The Epson Crystal Image video projector is a relatively new TV and uses three liquid crystal panels to encode the red, green, and blue components of the video signal onto the projector light. These panels can be removed for use in optical systems. We present the results from measurements of the phase- and amplitude-modulation properties of one of these LCTV panels.
Optical processing systems have been in existence for over 20 years but few have made the transition from the laboratory environment to the commercial environment. Pattern recognition done with optical correlators is one area which is now showing promise for applications outside the laboratory. Many papers have been written in years past on the need for better and faster spatial light modulators and more efficient filtering schemes prior to commercializing an optical correlator. The current state-of-the-art is now approaching this point. Two companies are even marketing Liquid Crystal Television based correlators. The purpose of this review will be to examine the current capabilities of optical correlators and to match those capabilities to existing requirements.
Liquid crystal televisions have received extensive attention in literature for use as input and Fourier plane devices in joint transform correlators, and for use in other optical processing architectures requiring television rate inputs. The device has also been used in incoherent optical neural network systems at Penn State University. Recent research investigated the hybrid phase and amplitude modulating properties of the LCTV in a joint transform correlator. A new LCTV made by Epson is the focus of this paper. The hybrid modulation properties of this television will be evaluated and the results presented. Results from applications using the new LCTVs will also be presented.
A polychromatic optical neural network using cascaded liquid crystal televisions (LCTV) that uses a polychromatic interconnection weight matrix (IWM) for color pattern recognition is presented and simulated. Extension of the polychromatic neural net for multichannel operation is proposed.
A first phase demonstration of the capabilities and limitations of an optical correlator in a realistic environment has been completed. The testing was divided into several areas, from laboratory data gathering to a fully functional helicopter-delivered demonstration airframe. The basic research performed has led to three fully fieldable test units which have proven to be rugged and dependable under normal test range conditions. The units were transportable and required no realignment of the optics. Two of the test systems were modular in construction while the third was a 'solid optic' design having optical paths and components contained within a solid glass construction. Two flights have been completed so far, and in both cases the target was identified and tracked, and an airframe guided to target impact.
The performance characteristics of three unique optically-addressed spatial light modulator (SLM) structures have been experimentally investigated. The measured parameters include maximum resolution, visibility, imaging response time, and write light sensitivity. The modulators investigated include two relatively new technologies, the ferroelectric liquid crystal (FLC) SLM from the University of Colorado-Boulder and the amorphous silicon photoconductive twisted nematic liquid crystal SLM from GEC-Marconi Research, and a well established industry benchmark, the Hughes Liquid Crystal Light Valve (LCLV). A comparison of these devices in terms of the above performance parameters is discussed in this communication.
Liquid Crystal Televisions have received extensive attention in the literature for use as input and Fourier plane devices in joint transform correlators, and for use in other optical processing architectures requiring television rate inputs. The device has also been used in incoherent optical neural network systems at Penn State University. Recent research has also investigated the hybrid phase and amplitude modulating properties of the LCTV in a joint transform correlator. These properties will now be applied to the well known Vander Lugt matched filter correlator. The results of employing the LCTV as a phase-only input device for making and addressing photographic matched filters is presented. Experiments using the LCTV as both the input and filter plane modulator in a mixed phase and amplitude mode also is discussed.
The present portable solid-optics correlator for real-time pattern recognition uses pixelated spatial light modulators and phase-only filters, and will operate on sensor information extracted from any sensor system. Prospective operations of such a rugged and portable optical pattern recognizer include smart weapon midcourse guidance and navigation, target recognition, aim-point selection, and precise terminal homing. An account is given of the testing procedure being used by the U.S. Army missile command for a missile-guidance appligation of this optical correlator.
A first-phase demonstration of the capabilities and limitations of an optical correlator in a realistic environment has been completed. The testing was divided into several areas, from gathering laboratory data to a fully functional helicopter-delivered demonstration airframe. The basic research performed has led to three fully fieldable test units which have proven to be rugged and dependable under normal test range conditions. The units were transportable and required no realignment of the optics. Two of the test systems were modular in construction while the third was a 'solid optic' design having optical paths and components contained within a solid glass construction. Two flights have been completed so far, and in both cases the target was identified and tracked, and an airframe guided to target impact.
The ability of an inexpensive liquid crystal television to modulate both coherent and incoherent infrared light is reported. Experiments demonstrating light modulation for wavelengths between 0.8 μm and 1.1 μm have been performed. Potential applications to dynamic lR scene simulators, compact joint transform correlators, and novel electron trapping processors are described.
The phase modulating capabilities of a commercially available liquid crystal television have been investigated and applied to the joint transform optical correlator architecture. Operating the LCTV in a phase modulating mode requires a much smaller coherent light source while still producing a good joint transform power spectrum and good correlation signals.
An experimental investigation is conducted of joint-power spectrum nonlinear transformation effects on the performance of a joint transform correlator. Attention is given to correlation-peak intensity, SNR, peak/sidelobe value, and peak width, for various degrees of the nonlinearity employed at the Fourier plane. The results obtained indicate increases of peak intensity, SNR, and peak/sidelobe, in conjunction with a decrease of the correlation, as the severity of the joint power spectrum''s nonlinear transformation increases. Attention is given to the performance of the liquid crystal light-valve spatial light modulator employed.
Experimental results are presented from spatial light modulators, in the form of a liquid crystal light valve and a ferroelectric liquid crystal. The experiments gave attention to the modulated response of the read beam as a function of the write light intensity. Regions of nonlinear response of the modulated read beam are noted.
A cozract joint transfona correlator has been designed having an
unfoldel length of f, where f is the focal length of a specifically
designed Fourier transfonu thick aspherical mirror. Both the theoretical
analysis and coriputer simulation shc that the new correlator design has
high space barxiwidth product 3'P, conpact structure, lcw spatial
frequency distortion, and produces high correlation peaks.
A real-time optical correlator based on GaAs and liquid-crystal TV (LCTV) is demonstrated. The demonstrated system has a video-frame rate limited by the speed of the LCTVs; if faster spatial-light modulators are used, the potential frame rate of a GaAs-based correlator can be as fast as 1000 frames/sec under experimental conditions. Comparisons are made between VanderLugt and joint transform and between degenerate and nondegenerate four-wave mixing. The edge-enhancement effect and the Bragg diffraction effect are discussed.
An account is given of a novel incoherent-image subtraction technique employing ET materials, which possess no coherent noise, high resolution, gray level, high space-bandwidth product, high speed, and cost-effectiveness. The present ET devices are based on thin films of Ca(x)Sr(1-x)S:Eu, Ce, Sm. Prospective applications of this ET device encompass IC manufacture/inspection, data compression, and high-definition TV. Experimental results are presented.
A hybrid digital/optical joint transform correlator that requires only one spatial light modulator has been designed, constructed, and demonstrated. This was accomplished using a novel video rate multiplexing and demultiplexing circuit that alternates frames of video addressing the SLM. Demonstrations using a modified liquid crystal television and a Faraday effect magneto-optic device show that the performance of the single SLM arrangement is essentially the same as that from the traditional two SLM architecture. The circuit utilizes common electronic components and requires a very small amount of power.
A new driver has been developed for the magneto-optic spatial light modulator. This driver allows the user to feed video directly to the spatial light modulator. Several characteristics of the spatial light modulator have been measured and a binary joint transform correlator has been built and tested. The results of these experiments as well as a description of the video driver are presented here.
One of the features in neural computing must be the ability to adapt to a changeable environment and to recognize unknown objects. This paper deals with an adaptive optical neural network using Kohonen's self-organizing feature map algorithm for unsupervised learning. A compact optical neural network of 64 neurons using liquid crystal televisions is used for this study. To test the performance of the self-organizing neural network, experimental demonstrations and computer simulations are provided.
Effects due to unsupervised learning parameters are analyzed. We show that the optical neural network is capable of performing both unsupervised
learning and pattern recognition operations simultaneously, by setting two matching scores in the learning algorithm. By using a slower learning rate, the construction of the memory matrix becomes more organized topologically. Moreover, the introduction of forbidden regions in the memory space enables the neural network to learn new patterns without
erasing the old ones.
This paper presents a technique of using data association target tracking in a motion sequence via an adaptive joint transform correlator. The massive data in the field of view can be reduced to a few correlation peaks. The average velocity of a target during the tracking cycle is then determined from the location of the correlation peak. We have used a data
association algorithm for the analysis of these correlation signals, with which multiple targets can be tracked. A phase-mostly LCTV is used in the hybrid joint transform correlation system, and simultaneous tracking of three targets is demonstrated.
One of the features in neural computing must be the adaptability to changeable environment and to recognize unknown objects. This paper deals with an adaptive optical neural network using Kohonon's self-organizing feature map algorithm for unsupervised learning. A compact optical neural network of 64 neurons using liquid crystal televisions is used for this study. To test the performances of the self-organizing neural network, experimental demonstrations with computer simulations are provided. Effects due to unsupervised learning parameters are analyzed. We have shown that the optical neural network is capable of performing both unsupervised learning and pattern recognition operations simultaneously, by setting two matching scores in the learning algorithm. By using slower learning rate, the construction of the memory matrix becomes topologically more organized. Moreover, by introducing the forbidden regions in the memory space, it would enable the neural network to learn new patterns without erasing the old ones.
In the past 15 years, a dozen or so designs have been proposed for optical computers. Of these, maybe one-third of them have actually been built and only a few of those tested. This paper will give an overview of some of the systems that have been built as well as mention some promising early and current designs that have not been built. Emphasis will be given to application oriented designs that have been built and tested. This means, of course, that the bulk of the paper is devoted to optical correlators.
An investigation is made of means to the standardization of methods for parameter characterization in the cases of spatial light modulators of optically addressed, electrically addressed, amplitude-modulating, and phase-modulating types, with a view to recommendations for future practice. The speed, resolution, and visibility parameters are noted to compare well irrespective of modulator type; phase and amplitude modulating devices cannot be directly compared, however, due to the fundamentally different ways that parameters are measured for each. To be meaningful, the MTF for an optically-addressed device must be accompanied by speed and illumination data. Lifetimes should be specified for all devices.
A technique using data association target tracking in a motion sequence via an adaptive joint transform correlator is presented. The massive data in the field of view can be reduced to a few correlation peaks. The average velocity of a target during the tracking cycle is then determined from the location of the correlation peak. A data-association algorithm is used for the analysis of these correlation signals, for which multiple targets can be tracked. A phase-mostly liquid-crystal TV is used in the hybrid joint transform correlation system, and simultaneous tracking of three targets is demonstrated.
The capability of an inexpensive liquid-crystal TV (LCTV) to modulate both coherent and incoherent IR light is reported. Experiments demonstrating light modulation for wavelengths between 0.8 and 1.1 microns have been performed. Potential applications to dynamic 3-5 and 8-12 microns IR scene simulators, compact joint transform correlators, and novel electron trapping processors, are described.
A compact size optical neural network using high resolution liquid crystal
televisions (LCTVs) has been constructed. System design consideration and an
experimental demonstration of the LCTV neural network are provided.
Symbolic substitution was firet proposed by Haung as a mean of utilising the parallelism of optics to perform
digital computing. Essentially, it is a combination of recognition and substitution phase. In addition,
although synibolic substitution is not restricted to space invariant operations, it is indeed based on the space
invariant connectivity of optics. Therefore, holographic associative memory techniques may be alternatively
applied to implement a symbolic substitution logic system.
A compact size optical neural network using high resolution liquid crystal televisions (LCTVs) has been constructed. System design consideration and an experimental demonstration of the LCTV neural network are provided. 1.
A hybrid optical/digital system for tracking an object in a sequence of images is described. Since a joint transform correlator does not require a matched spatial filter in the correlation process, object tracking can be carried out by continuously updating the reference image with the object image in the previous frame. This adaptive property of a joint transform correlator, together with the parallelism and high processing speed of an optical system, ensure high correlation between objects in two sequential frames. The relative position of the object can then be determined based on the location of the correlation peak. System performance is
evaluated and experimental demonstrations are presented.
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