Phase-measuring deflectometry (PMD) is a crucial technology for measuring the forms of specular surfaces. However, existing stereo-PMD techniques have noticeable weaknesses when it comes to measuring structured specular surfaces. This limitation arises because the optical axis of the imaging system must intersect significantly with the optical axis of the display system, following the law of reflection. In contrast, near optical coaxial phase measuring deflectometry (NCPMD) offers several advantages over conventional PMD techniques. These advantages include a compact configuration, lightweight design, and minimal measurement errors due to the shadows of surface structures. NCPMD achieves this by utilizing a plate beamsplitter. With the assistance of the plate beamsplitter, the optical axis of the display screen can be configured much closer to the optical axis of the imaging system. As a result, the system becomes more compact and significantly reduces volume compared to the conventional PMD configuration. However, the introduction of the plate beamsplitter can impact on the measurement accuracy of the system. Specifically, the refractive effect of the beamsplitter can reduce the measurement accuracy. To address this challenge, a refraction error model is proposed for the NCPMD system. This model considers the influence of the plate beamsplitter’s refraction, allowing for the determination of measurement errors caused by this effect. Additionally, a virtual simulation system is established to analyze the shape reconstruction error resulting from the plate beamsplitter’s refraction. According to the experiments and results, the measurement accuracy can be effectively improved after the refractive error compensation.
The near optical coaxial phase measuring deflectometry (NCPMD) is one of the phase measuring deflectometry (PDM) techniques which is typically used for specular surface form measurement. The NCPMD utilizing a plate beamsplitter to folding the optical axis of display screen to make it close to the optical axis of the imaging system which makes the system more compact and has significantly reduced volume compared with the traditional PMD configuration. The NCPDM can achieve compact configuration, light weight, and reduce measurement error caused by structure shadows of the off-axis configuration of traditional PDM. However, the plate beamsplitter will lead measurement errors to the NCPMD system due to the beamsplitter will inevitably inherited certain form errors on the two surfaces during manufacturing process. In this paper, a reflection error model of the NCPMD system is proposed, and the measurement error caused by the reflection effect of the plate beamsplitter is determined by considering the influence of the unevenness of the upper and lower surfaces of the plate beamsplitter. Simulation studies show that the proposed reflection model can accurately determine the measurement errors caused by the form errors of the beamsplitter, which can be effectively used for subsequent error compensation.
Iterative calculation is a necessary step in the calibration of stereo deflectometry. Inaccurate input can result in the iterative process converging in a wrong position or unconvergence. Image distortion is an important factors affecting the accuracy of the input. In order to reduce the influence of image distortion and increase the robustness of the calibration, a method based on a search algorithm is investigated for stereo deflectometry. Because there is few distortion at an image center, a search window with a certain border length is positioned at the image center to obtain a group of data for the iterative process. The size of the window is determined based on an algorithm proposed in this paper. Due to the fact that the centers of distortion and image are not coincident, the window is consecutively relocated within the image. A function is proposed to evaluate the input accuracy. Along with the window moving, the calculated data which makes the proposed function reach the minimum is selected to compute the following iterative process. Experimental results affirm the presented method can significantly enhance the robustness of the calibration accuracy of a stereo deflectometry system. By applying the proposed method, the RMS (root mean square) of calibration error can be increased from 0.31 pixels to 0.05 pixels.
A single shot RGB Multi-wavelength Polarizing Interferometer (MPI) is proposed for measuring moving precision surfaces with micro/nano-scale structured pattern or defects. The interferometer is combined with four CMOS cameras, each with an integrated Bayer filter, to capture four color phase shifted interferograms at a single exposure time. The phase shifting mechanism is achieved by using thin film linear polarizers and birefringent quarter-wave plates. The 2π phase ambiguity range is extended by using a synthetic wavelength produced from the RGB. Measurement of step height standard samples are also presented and compared to measurement obtained by Coherence Scanning Interferometer (CSI).
The line-scan dispersive interferometry (LSDI) benefits from single-shot measurement in nature and has potential to perform in-line surface metrology. In this technique, the interference beam produced by the two arms of the interferometer is spatially dispersed by a diffraction grating along the rows (or columns) of the CCD pixels. In which case, a two-dimensional spectral interferogram is generated. In this paper, fringe order determination is carried out to retrieve the more accurate phase information along the chromaticity axis of the interferogram and then the height map of the tested profile can be calculated with high resolution. Two standard artefacts have been evaluated using the developed LSDI and the experimental results are compared with that of phase slope method as well as the commercial instrument (Talysurf CCI 3000), which shows that better performance in measurement noise is achieved. Additionally, the measurement repeatability is significantly improved and demonstrated within sub-nanometer range.
KEYWORDS: 3D imaging metrology, Fringe analysis, 3D metrology, Phase measurement, Deflectometry, 3D displays, Calibration, 3D acquisition, Mathematical modeling, 3D modeling, Visual process modeling, Projection systems
This paper presents a novel Phase Measuring Deflectometry (PMD) method to measure specular objects having discontinuous surfaces. A mathematical model is established to directly relate the absolute phase and depth, instead of the phase and gradient. Based on the model, a hardware measuring system has been set up, which consists of a precise translating stage, a projector, a diffuser and a camera. The stage locates the projector and the diffuser together to a known position during measurement. By using the model-based and machine vision methods, system calibration is accomplished to provide the required parameters and conditions. The verification tests are given to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed system. 3D (Three-Dimensional) shapes of a concave mirror and a monolithic multi-mirror array having multiple specular surfaces have been measured. Experimental results show that the proposed method can obtain 3D shape of specular objects having discontinuous surfaces effectively
This paper presents a new Phase Measuring Deflectometry (PMD) method to measure specular object having discontinuous surfaces. A mathematical model is established to directly relate absolute phase and depth, instead of phase and gradient. Based on the model, a hardware measuring system has been set up, which consists of a beam splitter to change the optical path, and two LCD screens to display the same sinusoidal fringe patterns. By using model-based and machine vision method, system calibration is accomplished to provide the required parameters and conditions. The verification tests are given to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed system. The 3D shape of an artificial step having multiple specular surfaces and a concave mirror has been measured. Initial experimental results show that the proposed measurement method can obtain 3D shape of specular objects with discontinuous surface effectively.
Lateral chromatic aberration (CA) of color cameras has great effects on the imaging quality. This paper presents a novel method to full-field calibrate lateral CA between color channels by using unwrapped phase data. Closed circle sinusoidal fringe patterns having the optimum three-fringe numbers are generated and displayed on a liquid crystal screen consecutively through red, green and blue channels. These closed fringe patterns are captured by a color camera. The wrapped phase and unwrapped phase of each pixel can be calculated by using four-step phase shifting algorithm and optimum three-fringe number method, respectively. The pixel deviations produced by lateral CA are computed by comparing the obtained absolute phase data between red, blue, and green channels in polar coordinate system and calibration is accomplished in Cartesian coordinate system. Lateral CA between color channels of the color camera can be compensated by using the calibrated data. Simulated and experimental results show the validity of the proposed calibration and compensation method.
Film processing procedures by means of Roll-to-Roll (R2R) for barrier coatings can often result in PV barrier films being manufactured with significant quantities of defects, which results in lower efficiency and a short life span. In order to improve the process yield and product efficiency, it is desirable to develop an inspection system that can detect transparent barrier film defects in the production line during film processing. Off-line detection of defects in transparent PV barrier films is difficult and time consuming. Consequently, implementing an accurate in-situ defects inspection system in the production environment is even more challenging, since the requirements on positioning, fast measurement, long term stability and robustness against environmental disturbance are demanding. This paper reports on the development and deployment of two in-situ PV barrier films defect detection systems, one based on wavelength scanning interferometry (WSI) and the other on White Light Channeled Spectral Interferometry (WLCSI), and the integration into an R2R film processing line at the Centre for Process Innovation (CPI). The paper outlines the environmental vibration strategy for both systems, and the developed auto-focusing methodology for WSI. The systems have been tested and characterised and initial results compared to laboratory-based instrumentation are presented.
This paper presents a 3D small-field imaging system by using the color fringe projection technique to measure the small objects having large slopes and/or discontinuous surface. A stereo microscope is used to generate a small-field projecting field and to capture the deformed fringe patterns on the measured small objects, respectively. Three fringe sets having the optimum fringe numbers are coded into one major color channel to generate color fringe patterns having the maximum fringe contrast of the captured fringe images. Through one channel of the stereo microscope, a DLP (Digital Light Processing) projector projects these generated color fringe pattern images onto the measured objects surface. From another channel, the fringe patterns are deformed with regard to the object surface and captured by a color CCD camera. The absolute phase of each pixel can be calculated from the captured fringe patterns by using the optimum three-fringe numbers selection method. Experimental results on measuring 3D shape of small objects show the accuracy and availability of the developed 3D imaging system.
This paper presents a novel method to accurately calibrate a DLP projector by using an optical coaxial camera to capture
the needed images. A plate beam splitter is used to make imaging axis of the CCD camera and projecting axis of the DLP
projector coaxial, so the DLP projector can be treated as a true inverse camera. A plate having discrete markers on the
surface will be designed and manufactured to calibrate the DLP projector. By projecting vertical and horizontal
sinusoidal fringe patterns on the plate surface from the projector, the absolute phase of each marker’s center can be
obtained. The corresponding projector pixel coordinate of each marker is determined from the obtained absolute phase.
The internal and external parameters of the DLP projector are calibrated by the corresponding point pair between the
projector coordinate and the world coordinate of discrete markers. Experimental results show that the proposed method
accurately obtains the parameters of the DLP projector. One advantage of the method is the calibrated internal and
external parameters have high accuracy because of uncalibrating the camera. The other is the optical coaxes geometry
gives a true inverse camera, so the calibrated parameters are more accurate than that of crossed-optical-axes, especially
the principal points and the radial distortion coefficients of the projector lens.
Deflectometric methods have been studied for more than a decade for slope measurement of specular freeform surfaces
through utilization of the deformation of a sample pattern after reflection from a tested sample surface. Usually, these
approaches require two-directional fringe patterns to be projected on a LCD screen or ground glass and require slope
integration, which leads to some complexity for the whole measuring process.
This paper proposes a new mathematical measurement model for measuring topography information of freeform
specular surfaces, which integrates a virtual reference specular surface into the method of active fringe reflection
photogrammetry and presents a straight-forward relation between height of the tested surface and phase signals. This
method only requires one direction of horizontal or vertical sinusoidal fringe patterns to be projected from a LCD screen,
resulting in a significant reduction in capture time over established methods. Assuming the whole system has been precalibrated
during the measurement process, the fringe patterns are captured separately via the virtual reference and
detected freeform surfaces by a CCD camera. The reference phase can be solved according to the spatial geometric
relation between the LCD screen and the CCD camera. The captured phases can be unwrapped with a heterodyne
technique and optimum frequency selection method. Based on this calculated unwrapped-phase and that proposed
mathematical model, absolute height of the inspected surface can be computed. Simulated and experimental results show
that this methodology can conveniently calculate topography information for freeform and structured specular surfaces
without integration and reconstruction processes.
The assessment of surface finish has become increasingly important in the field of precision engineering. Optical
interferometry has been widely used for surface measurement due to the advantages of non-contact and high accuracy
interrogation. In spite of the 2π; phase ambiguity that can limit the measurement scale in monochromatic interferometry,
other optical interferomtry have succeeded to overcome this problem and to measure both rough and smooth surfaces
such as white light interferometry and wavelength scanning interferometry (WSI). The WSI can be used to measure large
discontinuous surface profiles by producing phase shifts without any mechanical scanning process. Where the WSI
produces the phase shifts by altering the wavelength of a broadband light source and capturing the produced
interferograms by a CCD. This paper introduces an optical setup and operation principle of a WSI that used a halogen
white light as a broadband illumination source and an acousto-optic tunable filter (AOTF) as a wavelength scanning
device. This setup can provide a wide scan range in the visible region. The scanned range is being operated from 682.8
nm to 552.8nm and the number of captured frames is 128. Furthermore, the obtained interferograms from a Linnik
interferometer have been analyzed by two methods, Fast Fourier Transform and Convolution. A mathematical
description of both methods is presented then a comparison in results accuracy is made between them. The Areal
measurement of a standard 4.707μm step height sample shows that FFT and convolution methods could provide a
nanometer measurement resolution for the surface finish inspection.
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