The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, NASA's next flagship mission in astrophysics, is due for launch in May 2027 with an onboard Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) which will serve as a technology demonstrator for exoplanet direct imaging. The Roman Coronagraph will be capable of detecting and characterizing exoplanets and circumstellar disks in visible light at an unprecedented contrast level of ~108 or better at small separations. The instrument is equipped with six precision alignment mechanisms (PAMs) which enable ultra-stable, sub-micrometer positioning of optical elements such as coronagraphic masks, optical filters and polarizers. In order to achieve contrast level, which are 2 to 3 orders of magnitude better than state-of-the-art visible or near-infrared coronagraphs, the mechanisms need to be stable at sub-microradian levels during a typically 10 hour long science observation. We report here about the development of these mechanisms and present their performance test results from the qualification/flight acceptance test program. All PAM flight models were delivered in the year 2022 and integrated into the CGI flight instrument. Meanwhile CGI has successfully completed all testing at JPL and was shipped to NASA GSFC in May 2024 for final integration into the Roman spacecraft.
The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope Coronagraph Instrument is a critical technology demonstrator for NASA’s Habitable Worlds Observatory. With a predicted visible-light flux ratio detection limit of 10−8 or better, it will be capable of reaching new areas of parameter space for both gas giant exoplanets and circumstellar disks. It is in the final stages of integration and test at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, with an anticipated delivery to payload integration in the coming year. This paper will review the instrument systems, observing modes, potential observing applications, and overall progress toward instrument integration and test.
The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (formerly WFIRST) will be launched in the mid-2020s with an onboard Coronagraph Instrument which will serve as a technology demonstrator for exoplanet direct imaging. The Roman Coronagraph will be capable of detecting and characterizing exoplanets and circumstellar disks in visible light at an unprecedented contrast level of ~10-8 or better at small separations. Such a contrast level, which is 2 to 3 orders of magnitude better than state-of-the-art visible or near-infrared coronagraphs, raises entirely new challenges that will be overcome using a combination of hardware, calibration and data processing. In particular, the Roman Coronagraph will be the first space-based coronagraphic instrument with active low- and high-order wavefront control through the use of largeformat (48x48) deformable mirrors, and its electron-multiplying Charge Coupled Device (EMCCD) detector will enable faint signal detection in photon-counting mode. The Roman Coronagraph successfully passed its critical design review in April 2021 and its system integration review in June 2022. It is now well on its path to demonstrate many core technologies at the levels required for a future exo-Earth direct imaging mission.
The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope is NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission planned for launch in 2026. The Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) on Roman will demonstrate the technology for direct imaging and spectroscopy of exoplanets around nearby stars. It will work with the 2.4-meter diameter telescope to achieve starlight suppression and point source detection limits that are 2–3 orders of magnitude deeper than previous space-based and groundbased coronagraphs by using active wavefront control with deformable mirrors. CGI has passed its Critical Design Review (CDR) in April of 2021, and System Integration Review (SIR) in June of 2022. We describe the status of CGI’s development and plans for the upcoming integration and testing phase.
The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (formally WFIRST) will be launched in the mid-2020’s with an onboard coronagraph instrument which will serve as a technology demonstrator for exoplanet direct imaging. The Roman Coronagraph will be capable of detecting and characterizing exoplanets and circumstellar disks in visible light at an unprecedented contrast level of ~10-8 or lower. Such a contrast level, which is several magnitudes better than state-of-the-art visible or near-infrared coronagraphs, raises entirely new challenges that will be overcome using a combination of hardware, calibration and data processing. In particular, the Roman Coronagraph will be the first space-based coronagraphic instrument with real-time active wavefront control through the use of large format deformable mirrors, and its EMCCD detector will enable faint signal detection in photon-counting mode. The Roman Coronagraph instrument passed its critical design review successfully in April 2021, and is now well on its path to demonstrate many core technologies at the levels required for future exo-Earth direct imaging missions.
NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (formerly known as WFIRST) is a flagship astrophysics mission planned for launch in 2025. The coronagraph instrument (CGI) on Roman will demonstrate the technology for direct imaging and spectroscopy of exoplanets around nearby stars. It will work with the 2.4-meter diameter telescope to achieve starlight suppression that is 2-3 orders of magnitude deeper than previous space-based and ground-based coronagraphs by using active wavefront control in space with deformable mirrors. CGI has passed its Preliminary Design Review (PDR) in September 2019 and is working toward the instrument Critical Design Review (CDR) in the spring of 2021. We describe the CGI engineering design going into CDR and the operational concept planned for CGI observations.
The Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) on the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope will demonstrate the highcontrast technology necessary for visible-light exoplanet imaging and spectroscopy from space via direct imaging of Jupiter-size planets and debris disks. This in-space experience is a critical step toward future, larger missions targeted at direct imaging of Earth-like planets in the habitable zones of nearby stars. This paper presents an overview of the current instrument design and requirements, highlighting the critical hardware, algorithms, and operations being demonstrated. We also describe several exoplanet and circumstellar disk science cases enabled by these capabilities. A competitively selected Community Participation Program team will be an integral part of the technology demonstration and could perform additional CGI observations beyond the initial tech demo if the instrument performance warrants it.
The WFIRST Coronagraph Instrument will perform direct imaging of exoplanets via coronagraphy of the host star. The Phase B optical design fits within a new allocated instrument enclosure and accommodates both Hybrid Lyot and Shaped Pupil coronagraphs. It provides optical path and space for accessible focal planes for occulting masks and field stops. It provides accessible pupil planes for shaped pupil and Lyot masks. It accommodates ten active optical assemblies, including one fast steering mirror, on focusing mirror, two deformable mirrors, and six precision alignment mechanisms. We present the optical design and analyses for the Direct Imaging channel, including polarization imaging. We also present the performance analysis of pupil imaging for starlight illumination and diffused light illumination of the pupil.
The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), which is planned for launch in 2025, is NASA’s next large space observatory after the James Webb Space Telescope. It contains two primary science instruments: A Wide Field Instrument (WFI) to carry out surveys of galaxies in the near infrared; explore the properties of dark energy and dark matter; and carry out a microlensing survey to complete the census of exoplanets, and a Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) to demonstrate high-contrast technology for exoplanet imaging and spectroscopy. Understanding how to implement the technology for CGI is a critical step toward future, larger missions targeted at direct imaging of Earthlike planets in the habitable zone of nearby stars. This paper presents an overview of the current instrument design and requirements, highlighting the critical technologies being demonstrated. These include two types of coronagraphs, closed-loop wavefront control with two deformable mirrors, a visible-light, electron multiplying detector (EMCCD), and a lenslet based integral field spectrograph. Additionally, critical algorithms will be developed and tested for low- and high-order wavefront control, spectral extraction, and post-processing for planet detection. The paper will also describe the operational plans for the instrument. A participating scientist program (PSP) will enable members of the community to engage in the technology demonstration and, if warranted by instrument performance, will incorporate science focusing on imaging and spectra of large Jupiter size planets and protoplanetary and debris disks and a blind search program for undiscovered Jupiters and possibly mini-Neptunes.
The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) will be the first high-performance stellar coronagraph using active wavefront control for deep starlight suppression in space, providing unprecedented levels of contrast and spatial resolution for astronomical observations in the optical. One science case enabled by the CGI will be taking visible images and (R~50) spectra of faint interplanetary dust structures present in the habitable zone of nearby sunlike stars (~10 pc) and within the snow-line of more distant ones (~20 pc), down to dust brightness levels commensurate with that of the solar system zodiacal cloud. Reaching contrast levels below 10-7 at sub-arcsecond angular scales for the first time, CGI will cross an important threshold in debris disks physics, accessing disks with low enough optical depths that their structure is dominated by transport mechanisms rather than collisions. Hence, CGI will help us understand how exozodiacal dust grains are produced and transported in low-density disks around mature stars. Additionally, CGI will be able to measure the brightness level and constrain the degree of asymmetry of exozodiacal clouds around individual nearby sunlike stars in the optical, at the ~3x solar zodiacal emission level. This information will be extremely valuable for optimizing the observational strategy of possible future exo-Earth direct imaging missions, especially those planning to operate at optical wavelengths as well, such as the Habitable Exoplanet Observatory (HabEx) and the Large Ultraviolet/Optical/Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR).
The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), which is entering Phase B for a launch in 2026, is NASA’s next large space observatory after the James Webb Space Telescope. In addition to the primary science carried out by The Wide Field Instrument (WFI), which is designed to carry out surveys of galaxies in the near infrared, explore the properties of dark energy and dark matter, and carry out a microlensing survey to complete the census of exoplanets, there will be a technology demonstration of a Coronagraph Instrument (CGI) for very high-contrast imaging and spectroscopy of nearby exoplanets. The CGI will incorporate two coronagraph types and demonstrate low- and high-order wavefront correction for the first time on a space telescope. Operating in the visible, it will consist of a direct imaging camera and a lenslet based integral field spectrograph, both using electron-multiplying CCDs in the focal plane, as well as polarizers allowing direct imaging in separate polarization states. Written by the lead science and engineering team, supported by two science investigation teams (SITs – https://wfirst.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/fswg/scienceteam.html), this paper presents an overview of the technology requirements on the instrument, the instrument design, and the operational plans to demonstrate exoplanet imaging and spectroscopic capability. Also described is how CGI will advance algorithms for extracting planet images from the background and retrieving spectra from a space IFS. Once the core performance is successfully demonstrated, CGI will also be used in the latter part of the mission for a dedicated science and Guest Observer (GO) program. This paper thus also describes the potentially revolutionary science that will be enabled through direct imaging and spectroscopy of known radial velocity planets and debris disks as seen in reflected light.
The Space Interferometry Mission, scheduled for launch in 2008, is an optical stellar interferometer with a 10 meter baseline capable of micro-arcsecond accuracy astrometry. A mission-enabling technology development program conducted at JPL, has yielded the heterodyne interferometric displacement metrology gauges required for monitoring the geometry of optical components of the stellar interferometer, and for maintaining stable starlight fringes. The gauges have <20 picometer linearity, <10 micron absolute accuracy, are stable to <200 pm over the typical SIM observation periods (~1 hour), have the ability to track the motion of mirrors over several meters. We discuss the technology that led to this level of performance: lowcross- talk, low thermal coefficient optics and electronics, active optical alignment, a dual wavelength laser source, and a continuously averaging, high data rate phase measurement technique. These technologies have wide applicability and are already being used outside of the SIM project, such as by the James Webb Space telescope (JWST) and Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) missions.
The Space Interferometry Mission, scheduled for launch in 2008, is an optical stellar interferometer with a 10 meter baseline capable of micro-arcsecond accuracy astrometry. A mission-enabling technology development program is underway at JPL, including the design and test of heterodyne interferometer metrology gauges to monitor the separation of optical components of the stellar interferometer. The gauges are required to have a resolution of 15 picometers and to track the motion of mirrors over several meters. We report laboratory progress in meeting these goals.
Sensing starlight rejected from a coronagraph is essential in stabilizing the telescope pointing and wavefront drift, but performance is degraded for dim stars. Laser Metrology (MET) provides a different, complementary sensing method, one that can be used to measure changes in the alignment of the optics at high bandwidth, independent of the magnitude of the host star. Laser metrology measures changes in the separation of optical fiducial pairs, which can be separated by many meters. The principle of operations is similar to the laser metrology system used in LISA-Pathfinder to measure the in-orbit displacement between two test masses to a precision of ~10 picometers. In closed loop with actuators, MET actively maintains rigid body alignment of the front-end optics, thereby eliminating the dominant source of wavefront drift. Because MET is not photon starved, it can operate at high bandwidth and feed-forward secondary-mirror jitter to a fast-steering mirror, correcting line-of-sight errors. In the case of a segmented, active primary mirror, MET provides six degrees of freedom sensing, replacing edge sensors. MET maintains wavefront control even during attitude maneuvers, such as slews between target stars, thereby avoiding the need to repeat time-consuming speckle suppression. These features can significantly improve the performance and observational efficiency of future large-aperture space telescopes equipped with internal coronagraphs. We evaluate MET trusses for various proposed monolithic and segmented spacebased coronagraphs and present the performance requirements necessary to maintain contrast drift below 10-11.
The WFIRST Coronagraph Instrument will perform direct imaging of exoplanets via coronagraphy of the host star. It uses both the Hybrid Lyot and Shaped Pupil Coronagraphs to meet the mission requirements. The Phase A optical design fits within the allocated instrument enclosure and accommodates both coronagraphic techniques. It also meets the challenging wavefront error requirements. We present the optical performance including throughput of the imaging and IFS channels, as well as the wavefront errors at the first pupil and the imaging channel. We also present polarization effects from optical coatings and analysis of their impacts on the performance of the Hybrid Lyot coronagraph. We report the results of stray light analysis of our Occulting Mask Coronagraph testbed.
The Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) is a NASA observatory concept, now in phase A study, which is designed to perform wide-field imaging and slitless spectroscopic surveys for dark energy research and other astrophysical studies. It will also perform microlensing surveys to look for distant exoplanets in our galaxy, and direct imaging studies of some of the very nearest exoplanets. The current astrophysics focused telescope assets (AFTA) design of the mission makes use of an existing 2.4-m telescope, which yields enhanced sensitivity and imaging performance in all these science programs. AFTA also enables the addition of a coronagraph instrument (CGI) for direct imaging and spectroscopy of nearby giant exoplanets (including some that were discovered by radial velocity and other methods), and also for observing debris disks around the candidate host stars. This paper outlines the context for the other papers in this special volume on the WFIRST-AFTA CGI, covering the science, design, engineering, and technology development of the observatory and its CGI.
The most recent concept for the Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) Design Reference Mission (DRM) features an instrument that will perform exoplanet detection via coronagraphy of the host star. This observatory is based on the existing Astrophysics Focused Telescope Asset’s (AFTA) 2.4-meter telescope. The WFIRST/AFTA Coronagraph Instrument combines the Hybrid Lyot and Shaped Pupil Coronagraphs to meet the science requirements. The cycle 5 optical design fits the required enclosure and accommodates both coronagraphic architectures. We present the optical performance including throughput of both the imaging and the IFS channels, the wavefront error at the first pupil, and polarization effects from optical coatings.
The WFIRST-AFTA coronagraph will directly image exoplanets and disks around nearby stars, and obtain spectra. The
coronagraph has photometric bands covering about 400-1000 nm, and an integral field spectrometer with a resolution of
about 70. The range of sensitivity in angular separation from a star is about 0.1 to 0.6 arc-seconds. The limiting contrast
is about 10-9, and a goal of 10-10. The engineering development program is focused on low-order wavefront sensing and
control, coronagraph masks, coronagraph performance, speckle detection and suppression, post-processing algorithms,
an integral field spectrometer, and low-noise detectors. Progress and plans in these areas will be reviewed.
NASA’s WFIRST-AFTA mission concept includes the first high-contrast stellar coronagraph in space. This coronagraph will be capable of directly imaging and spectrally characterizing giant exoplanets similar to Neptune and Jupiter, and possibly even super-Earths, around nearby stars. In this paper we present the plan for maturing coronagraph technology to TRL5 in 2014-2016, and the results achieved in the first 6 months of the technology development work. The specific areas that are discussed include coronagraph testbed demonstrations in static and simulated dynamic environment, design and fabrication of occulting masks and apodizers used for starlight suppression, low-order wavefront sensing and control subsystem, deformable mirrors, ultra-low-noise spectrograph detector, and data post-processing.
The most recent concept for the Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) flight mission features a secondary,
descopable, instrument that will perform exoplanet detection via coronagraphy of the host star. This observatory is
based on the existing Astrophysics Focused Telescope Assets (AFTA) 2.4-meter telescope. The mission will study
exoplanets via coronagraphy and gravitational microlensing, probe dark energy, and survey the near infrared sky. Over
the past year, the engineering team has been working with the science definition team to refine the mission and payload
concepts. We present the current design of the coronagraph instrument point design.
We present an overview of the ongoing progress towards flight readiness of the SIM project. We summarize the
engineering milestones that have been completed in the last two years, namely: the Brass-Board Internal and
External Metrology Beam Launchers, the Brass-Board Metrology Source, and the Instrument Communication
Hardware/Software Architecture Demonstration. We also show other progress such as: the life test of the bass-screw
and PZT actuators, building the Metrology Fiducials and the Single Strut Test Article. We status the
ongoing work on the Brass-Board Fast Steering Mirror and the Brass-Board Astrometric Beam Combiner. We
end with a proposed path towards finishing the Brass-Board suite.
An astronomical beam combiner combines the two beams of starlight to form white-light fringes. It is
desirable that the dispersion of the beam combiner be minimized across the observation wavelength range.
We present here an analysis of the phase dispersion from coatings for a symmetric beam combiner. The
sensitivity of the dispersion to a slight mismatch in beamsplitter coatings is also studied.
A common-path laser heterodyne interferometer capable of measuring the internal OPD with accuracy of the order of 10 pm was demonstrated at JPL. To achieve this accuracy, the relative power received by the detector that is contributed by the scattering of light at the optical surfaces should be less than -97 dB. A method has been developed to estimate the cyclic error caused by the scattering of the optical surfaces. The result of the analysis is presented.
The Space Interferometer Mission (SIM), scheduled for launch in 2009, is a space-born visible light stellar interferometer capable of micro-arcsecond-level astrometry. The Micro-Arcsecond Metrology testbed (MAM) is the ground-based testbed that incorporates all the functionalities of SIM minus the telescope, for mission-enabling technology development and verification. MAM employs a laser heterodyne metrology system using the Sub-Aperture Vertex-to-Vertex (SAVV) concept. In this paper, we describe the development and modification of the SAVV metrology launchers and the metrology instrument electronics, precision alignments and pointing control, locating cyclic error sources in the MAM testbed and methods to mitigate the cyclic errors, as well as the performance under the MAM performance metrics.
Laser interferometers with better than10 picometer (pm) accuracy in displacement measurement and 1-3 microns in absolute distance ranging accuracy are sought in several of NASA's planned missions, such as the Space Interferometry Mission (SIM) and Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF). Over the past several years, we have made significant progress at JPL toward a laser heterodyne interferometer system that can provide both picometer displacement measurement and micron level absolute distance measurement. This paper presents an review on the development of high precision metrology gauges for these missions.
The Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) employs an aggressive coronagraph designed to obtain better than 1e-10 contrast inside the third Airy ring. Minute changes in low-order aberration content scatter significant light at this position. One implication is the requirement to control low-order aberrations induced by motion of the secondary mirror relative to the primary mirror; sub-nanometer relative positional stability is required. We propose a 6-beam laser truss to monitor the relative positions of the two mirrors. The truss is based on laser metrology developed for the Space Interferometry Mission.
Visible interferometry at µarc-second accuracy requires measurement of the interferometric baseline length and orientation at picometer accuracy. The optical metrology instruments required for these interferometers must achieve accuracy on order of 1 to 10 picometers. This paper discusses the progress in the development of optical interferometers for use in distance measurement gauges with systematic errors below 100 picometers. The design is discussed as well as test methods and test results.
To accomplish micro-arcsecond astrometric measurement, stellar interferometers such as SIM require the measurement of internal optical path length delay with an accuracy of ~10 picometers level. A novel common-path laser heterodyne interferometer suitable for this application was proposed and demonstrated at JPL. In this paper, we present some of the experimental results from a laboratory demonstration unit and design considerations for SIM's internal metrology beam launcher.
The micro-arcsecond metrology testbed (MAM) provides a testing ground
for SIM to perform optical path difference measurements with picometer
(pm) precision. Because of imperfect optics and non-ideal laser
sources it is inevitable that the cyclic bias is one of the major
error sources for SIM. Many experiments have been conducted to
diagnose and to characterize cyclic bias in the laser gauges, and in
white light fringe detection. Our data analysis indicates that cyclic
bias in MAM has a predictable frequency and a relatively stable
amplitude. It has been proposed to use phase measurements at different
wavelengths to solve for the cyclic bias. The experiment results have
shown that the cyclic bias in SAVV are reduced from nm level to the level of hundred picometers. Besides the cyclic bias the effective
wavelengths of spectral channels have to be calibrated also. At
present, a new method using FFT technique and new metrology gauge
demonstrates that the wavelength determination has a precision of
10-4. The spectrometer in MAM is stable. The changes of
effective wavelengths in a few weeks is about one nanometer, or
less. Systematic biases above must be periodically calibrated.
A multi-channel heterodyne laser interferometer is proposed for measurement of optical surface deformations at the sub- nanometer level. This interferometer employs a common-path configuration and heterodyne detection, by which fringe errors due to laser frequency fluctuations and optical path variations due to vibration can be reduced. By measuring the heterodyne signal phase among sub-apertures (pixels) with a 2- D detector array, the surface height can be reconstructed and surface deformation can be measured by comparing consecutive measurements. Detection of sub-nanometer level surface deformation is achieved using high precision digital phase meters and athermalized opto-mechanical systems. This paper describes the interferometer design criteria and experiment methodologies.
Ann add/drop multiplexer/demultiplexer using volumetric holographic crystal Bragg gratings and without use of circulators has been demonstrated. Multiplexed gratings with angle multiplexed reflection filters provide wavelength- selective reflection of one or more channels into or out of the fiber without disturbing the through channels. Overall channel add/drop losses of less than 3 dB and through channel losses of less than 0.5 dB have been demonstrated. Fabrication of holographic filters with the desired passband characteristics has also been demonstrated.
We present experimental results of holographic grating recording in the near ultra-violet (UV) in photorefractive LiNbO3 crystals. The UV wavelength limits of Fe-doped LiNbO3 crystals for UV grating filters have been established by characterizing the grating diffraction efficiency versus recording wavelength ranging from 300 to 400 nm. Methods for improving the UV performance of LiNbO3 have also been investigated. It has been shown that the material absorption loss of Fe:LiNbO3 crystals can be reduced and the grating efficiency can be a significantly improved by using proper post-grown oxidization treatment. Using the improved UV LiNbO3 crystal, a sub-Angstrom bandwidth holographic grating imaging filter for solar observation at the Ca K-line (393.3 nm) has also been fabricated. Narrow bandwidth (22 pm, FWHM), large numerical aperture (f/15), large field-of-view (35 mrad), large aperture (15 mm in diameter) and high in-band diffraction efficiency (25%) have been successfully demonstrated. These results indicate an improved performance at a reduced cost as compared with currently available Lyot filters for solar magnetic field sensing at Ca K-line. Applications of the UV photorefractive holographic grating devices include solar and planetary observing, lidar receiving sub-systems for Earth remote sensing and atmospheric monitoring, and high density UV optical data storage.
Volume holographic recording using nonlinear photorefractive crystals is characterized by, among other features, nonlinear beam coupling effect, erasure-recording dynamics, and crystal anisotropy and birefringency. In this paper we first investigate the spectral diffraction properties of a reflective-type volume hologram by considering photorefractive beam coupling and recording-erasure dynamics. We then investigate the spatial diffraction properties of a PR hologram as affected by crystal refractive-index anisotropy. Its effects on the fidelity of the hologram image and on multiplexing scheme are also discussed. Finally, the combined (intrasignal) beam coupling and crystal anisotropy effect are examined for PR LiNbO3 crystal.
Narrow bandwidth gratings, recorded using volume holography in photorefractive materials such as LiNbO3, have been demonstrated for use as filters, wavelength selective couplers, and optical data storage elements. Sub-angstrom bandwidths have been demonstrated in the visible and infrared. Reflectivities of up to 95% have been obtained. Applications in filtering, instrumentation, telecommunications, and optical storage are discussed.
Light-induced scattering in a Ce:Fe:LiNbO3 crystal is highly temperature dependent. By considering the effect due to thermally activated ions in a photorefractive crystal, we have shown that the photo-induced space-charge field is neutralized by the activated ions. This neutralization in turn leads to scattering noise reduction in the crystal. By raising the crystal temperature, we have observed a reduction in scattering noise, which is consistent with our prediction. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in a two-wave mixing amplification due to thermal activation effect is analyzed. Experimental demonstrations using a Ce:Fe:LiNbO3 crystal are provided, in which we have shown that the SNR improves as the crystal temperature increases.
Steady-state Bragg diffraction (nondegenerate four-wave mixing) in a Ce:Fe:LiNbO3 photorefractive crystal as a function of the crystal temperature is described. We have shown that an efficient steady-state frequency-varied conjugate wave (FVCW) can be generated at an elevated crystal temperature of about 120°C, at which a tenfold increase in the steady-state FVCW intensity is observed compared with that at room temperature (20°C). We have found that the temperature dependency is primarily due to the reduction of light-induced scattering by thermally activated ions that neutralize the noise grating in the crystal. We have also observed that, at higher temperatures, steady-state phase-conjugate waves at both pump wavelengths can be obtained.
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