Achieving satisfactory overlay is increasingly challenging as feature sizes are reduced and allowable overlay budgets shrink to several nanometers and below. Overlay errors induced by wafer processing, such as film deposition and etching, constitute a meaningful fraction of overlay budgets. Wafer geometry measurements provide the opportunity to quantify stress-induced distortions at the wafer level and provide information that can be used in a feedback mode to alter wafer processing or in a feed-forward mode to set wafer-specific corrections in the lithography tool. In order for such feed-forward schemes based on wafer geometry to be realized, there is a need for mechanics models that relate in-plane distortion of a chucked wafer to the out-of-plane distortion of a wafer in a free state. Here, a simple analytical model is presented that shows the stress-induced component of overlay is correlated to a corrected local wafer slope metric for a wide range of cases. The analytical model is validated via finite element (FE) simulations of wafers with nonuniform stress distributions. Furthermore, FE modeling is used here to examine the effect of the spatial wavelength of stress variation on the connection between slope and the wafer stress-induced component of overlay.
Wafer flatness during exposure in lithography tools is critical and is becoming more important as feature sizes in devices shrink. While chucks are used to support and flatten the wafer during exposure, it is essential that wafer geometry be controlled as well. Thickness variations of the wafer and high-frequency wafer shape components can lead to poor flatness of the chucked wafer and ultimately patterning problems, such as defocus errors. The objective of this work is to understand how process-induced wafer geometry, resulting from deposited films with non-uniform stress, can lead to high-frequency wafer shape variations that prevent complete chucking in lithography scanners. In this paper, we discuss both the acceptable limits of wafer shape that permit complete chucking to be achieved, and how non-uniform residual stresses in films, either due to patterning or process non-uniformity, can induce high spatial frequency wafer shape components that prevent chucking. This paper describes mechanics models that relate non-uniform film stress to wafer shape and presents results for two example cases. The models and results can be used as a basis for establishing control strategies for managing process-induced wafer geometry in order to avoid wafer flatness-induced errors in lithography processes.
Controlling overlay errors resulting from wafer processing, such as film deposition, is essential for meeting overlay budgets in future generations of devices. Out-of-plane distortions induced on the wafer due to processing are often monitored through high-resolution wafer geometry measurements. While such wafer geometry measurements provide information about the wafer distortion, mechanics models are required to connect such measurements to overlay errors, which result from in-plane distortions. The aim of this paper is to establish fundamental connections between the out-ofplane distortions that are characterized in wafer geometry measurements and the in-plane distortions on the wafer surface that lead to overlay errors. First, an analytical mechanics model is presented to provide insight into the connection between changes in wafer geometry and overlay. The analytical model demonstrates that the local slope of the change in wafer shape induced by the deposition of a residually stressed film is related to the induced overlay for simple geometries. Finite element modeling is then used to consider realistic wafer geometries and assess correlations between the local slope of the wafer shape change induced by the deposition of a stressed film and overlay. As established previously, overlay errors only result when the stresses in the film are non-uniform, thus the finite element study considers wafers with several different nonuniform residual stress distributions. Correlation between overlay and a metric based on a corrected wafer slope map is examined. The results of the modeling and simulations are discussed and compared to recently published experimental results.
Wafer chucks are used in advanced lithography systems to hold and flatten wafers during exposure. To minimize defocus and overlay errors, it is important that the chuck provide sufficient pressure to completely chuck the wafer and remove flatness variations across a broad range of spatial wavelengths. Analytical and finite element models of the clamping process are presented here to understand the range of wafer geometry features that can be fully chucked with different clamping pressures. The analytical model provides a simple relationship to determine the maximum feature amplitude that can be chucked as a function of spatial wavelength and chucking pressure. Three-dimensional finite element simulations are used to examine the chucking of wafers with various geometries, including cases with simulated and measured shapes. The analytical and finite element results both demonstrate that geometry variations with short spatial wavelengths (e.g., high-frequency wafer shape features) present the greatest challenge to achieving complete chucking. The models and results presented here can be used to provide guidance on wafer geometry and chuck designs for advanced exposure tools.
The deposition of films with nonuniform residual stress can induce local changes in wafer shape and contribute to overlay errors with magnitudes that may be significant in advanced lithographic patterning processes. Understanding the fundamental relationship between residual stress, localized wafer shape changes, and overlay error is crucial for realizing new schemes to manage overlay errors, particularly at advanced nodes where feature sizes are smaller. In the present work, finite element modeling is used to quantitatively relate nonuniform residual stress in a deposited thin film to localized wafer shape changes and overlay errors. The results demonstrate that there is a strong correlation between localized shape variations induced by nonuniform residual stresses and noncorrectable overlay errors.
The deposition of residually stressed films in semiconductor manufacturing processes introduces elastic distortions in the
wafer that can contribute to overlay errors in lithographic patterning. The distortion induced by film deposition causes
out-of-plane distortion (i.e. wafer shape) that can be measured with commercial metrology tools as well as in-plane
distortion that leads to overlay errors. In the present work, overlay errors and out-of-plane distortion of wafers resulting
from residual stresses that are non-uniform over the area of wafer are examined using computational mechanics
modeling. The results of these simulations are used to examine the correlations between wafer shape features and
overlay errors. Specifically, connections between overlay errors and metrics based on the slope of the wafer shape are
assessed.
The wear of atomic force microscope (AFM) tips is a critical issue in the performance of probe-based metrology and
nanomanufacturing processes. In this work, diamond-like carbon (DLC) was coated on Si AFM tips using a plasma ion
implantation and deposition process. The mechanical integrity of these DLC-coated tips was compared to that of
uncoated silicon tips through systematic nanoscale wear testing over scan distances up to 0.5 meters. The wear tests
consisted of a combination of contact-mode AFM scanning, transmission electron microscopy, and pull-off force
measurements. Power spectral density analysis of AFM measurements acquired on structured samples was used to
evaluate the imaging performance of the tips. The results show that Si tips are prone to catastrophic failure in self-mated
contacts under typical scanning conditions. In contrast, DLC-coated tips demonstrate little to no measurable wear under
adhesive forces alone, and exhibit stress-dependent gradual wear under external loads of ~22 and 43 nN.
KEYWORDS: Semiconducting wafers, Optical lithography, Lithography, Overlay metrology, Scanners, Shape analysis, Data modeling, Finite element methods, Error analysis, Chemical elements
Chucking of substrates with wafer shape and thickness variations results in elastic deformation that can cause significant in-plane distortions that lead to overlay errors in lithographic patterning. As feature sizes shrink, overlay errors due to the combination of wafer geometry and chucking become a larger fraction of the error budget and must be controlled. We use a finite element model and a lithographic correction postprocessing scheme to predict in-plane distortions that result from chucking wafers with shape variations. We then use the predictions of in-plane distortions at two different patterning steps to calculate the component of overlay error that arises from localized shape variations. Using the model, in-plane distortion and overlay errors due to chucking are examined for multiple wafers with different geometries. The results show that long spatial wavelength shape variations cause significant distortion, but can largely be mitigated through the use of simple first-order corrections that are applied in typical lithography scanners. In contrast, high-frequency spatial variations cause distortions that cannot be corrected and hence lead to meaningful overlay errors. The results provide fundamental insight into chucking-induced overlay errors and can serve as a basis for the development of higher order scanner correction schemes that explicitly account for the wafer geometry through high-density wafer shape measurements.
KEYWORDS: Extreme ultraviolet lithography, Interferometry, Photomasks, Reticles, Data modeling, 3D modeling, Mathematical modeling, Photography, Image quality, Control systems
Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL) is one of the leading candidates for Next-Generation Lithography in the sub-45-nm regime. Successful implementation of this technology will depend upon advancements in many areas,
including the quality of the mask system to control image placement errors. For EUVL, the nonflatness of both the
mask and chuck is critical, due to the nontelecentric illumination during exposure. The industry is proposing to use an
electrostatic chuck to support and flatten the mask in the exposure tool. The focus of this research is to investigate the
clamping ability of a pin-type chuck, both experimentally and with the use of numerical simulation tools, i.e., finite
element modeling. A status report on electrostatic chucking is presented, including the results obtained during
repeatability studies and long-term chucking experiments.
Extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) has stringent requirements on image placement (IP) errors in order to allow for
the patterning of devices with critical dimensions (CD) in the sub-32 nm regime. A major contributor to IP error in
EUVL is non-flatness of the mask. Electrostatic chucks are used to support and flatten masks in EUVL scanners.
Proper operation requires that the electrostatic forces generated by the chuck be of sufficient magnitude and be uniform
over the entire chucking area. Hence, there is a need to measure the clamping pressure distribution to properly
characterize performance of electrostatic chucks. This paper discusses two methods to measure electrostatic pressure
magnitude and uniformity by examining the distortion of thin substrates (wafers) during chucking. In the first method, a
wafer with lithographically defined mesas is chucked with the mesas located at the interface between the wafer and the
chuck and thus results in a void near the mesa after chucking. Analytical and finite element models were used to relate
the resulting void radius to the electrostatic pressure and used to assess the feasibility of the technique. Measurements of
pressure on a slab chuck were conducted to demonstrate the mesa measurement approach. The second measurement
method examines the deflection of a wafer between pins on a pin chuck in order to estimate the local pressure. A 3D FE
model was developed to predict the deformation of the wafer between the pins as a function of applied pressure. The
model was used to assess the feasibility of the approach and provide guidance on selecting appropriate substrates for use
in such experiments.
According to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, meeting the strict requirements on image
placement errors in the sub-45-nm regime may be one of the most difficult challenges for the industry. For Extreme
Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL), the nonflatness of both the mask and chuck is critical as well, due to the
nontelecentric illumination during exposure. To address this issue, SEMI Standards P37 and P40 have established the
specifications on flatness for the EUVL mask substrate and electrostatic chuck. This study investigates the procedures
for implementing the Standards when measuring and characterizing the shapes of these surfaces. Finite element
simulations are used to demonstrate the difficulties in supporting the mask substrate, while ensuring that the measured
flatness is accurate. Additional modeling is performed to illustrate the most appropriate methods of characterizing the
nonflatness of the electrostatic chuck. The results presented will aid in identifying modifications and clarifications that
are needed in the Standards to facilitate the timely development of EUV lithography.
With the stringent requirements on image placement (IP) errors in the sub-65-nm regime, all sources of mask
distortion during fabrication and usage must be minimized or corrected. For extreme ultraviolet lithography, the
nonflatness of the mask is critical as well, due to the nontelecentric illumination during exposure. This paper outlines
a procedure to predict the IP errors induced on the mask during the fabrication processing, e-beam tool chucking, and
exposure tool chucking. Finite element (FE) models are used to simulate the out-of-plane and in-plane distortions at
each load step. The FE results are compiled to produce a set of Correction Tables that can be implemented during e-beam
writing to compensate for these distortions and significantly increase IP accuracy. A previous version of this paper appeared in the Proceedings of the European Mask and Lithography Conference (EMLC), SPIE, 6533, 653314 (2007). The paper has been updated, retitled, and published here as a result of winning the Best Paper Award at the EMLC.
With the stringent requirements on image placement (IP) errors in the sub-65 nm regime, all sources of mask
distortion during fabrication and usage must be minimized or corrected. For extreme ultraviolet lithography, the
nonflatness of the mask is critical as well, due to the nontelecentric illumination during exposure. This paper outlines
a procedure to predict the IP errors induced on the mask during the fabrication processing, e-beam tool chucking, and
exposure tool chucking. Finite element (FE) models are used to simulate the out-of-plane and in-plane distortions at
each loading step. The FE results are compiled to produce a set of Correction Tables that can be implemented during
e-beam writing to compensate for these distortions and significantly increase IP accuracy.
A modeling methodology based on the coupling of free surface energy minimization techniques and
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling has been developed for simulating the macro-regime of evaporation-driven
self-assembly processes; specifically, those processes that use lithographically defined features to precisely direct
the self-assembly of particles on a substrate. Because surface tension dominates the gravitational, inertial, and viscous
forces acting on the droplet, the shape of the droplet is determined as a function of its volume and pinning geometry by
minimizing its surface energy. The evolution of droplet shape during evaporation is used to define the deforming
control volume, over which the governing partial differential equations for conservation of mass, momentum, and
particle concentration are solved. By decoupling the free surface and the flow models, a diverse range of problems can
be investigated. The macro-scale model is envisioned as one part of a hierarchical model that can be used to study the
entire lithographically-directed, evaporation-driven self-assembly process.
Characterizing the effect of electrostatic chucking on the flatness of Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL) reticles is
necessary for the implementation of EUVL for the sub-32 nm node. In this research, finite element (FE) models have
been developed to predict the flatness of reticles when clamped by a bipolar Coulombic pin chuck. Nonflatness
measurements of the reticle and chuck surfaces were used to create the model geometry. Chucking was then simulated
by applying forces consistent with the pin chuck under consideration. The effect of the nonuniformity of electrostatic
forces due to the presence of gaps between the chuck and reticle backside surfaces was also included. The model
predictions of the final pattern surface shape of the chucked reticle have been verified with chucking experiments and
the results have established the validity of the models. Parametric studies with varying reticle shape, chuck shape, chuck
geometry, and chucking pressure performed using FE modeling techniques are extremely useful in the development of
SEMI standards for EUVL.
Stringent flatness requirements have been imposed for the front and back surfaces of extreme ultraviolet
lithography masks to ensure successful pattern transfer within the image placement error budget. During exposure, an
electrostatic chuck will be used to support and flatten the mask. It is therefore critical that the electrostatic chucking
process and its effect on mask flatness be well-understood. The current research is focused on the characterization of
various aspects of electrostatic chucking through advanced finite element (FE) models and experiments. FE models that
use flatness measurements of the mask and the chuck to predict the final flatness of the pattern surface have been
developed. Pressure was applied between the reticle and chuck to simulate electrostatic clamping. The modeling results
are compared to experimental data obtained using a bipolar Coulombic pin chuck. Electrostatic chucking experiments
were performed in a cleanroom, within a vacuum chamber mounted on a vibration isolation cradle, to minimize the
effects of particles, humidity, and static charges. During these experiments, the chuck was supported on a 3-point
mount; the reticle was placed on the chuck with the backside in contact with the chucking surface and the voltage was
applied. A Zygo interferometer was used to measure the flatness of the reticle before and after chucking. The FE
models and experiments provide insight into the electrostatic chucking process which will expedite the design of
electrostatic chucks and the development of the SEMI standards.
Electrostatic chucks are used to support and flatten extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) masks during exposure
scanning. Characterizing and predicting the capability of electrostatic chucks to reduce mask nonflatness to meet the
required specifications are critical issues. Previous research has assumed that the electrostatic force is uniform over the
entire chucking area; however, recent results from chucking experiments suggest this may not be the case. Quantifying
the spatial nonuniformity in electrostatic force is critical for the understanding and modeling of electrostatic chucking of
masks in EUVL systems. The present research proposes a novel approach to identify the local electrostatic pressure, by
analyzing experimental interferometric data and comparing it to analytical and finite element modeling results. The
local analysis can be expanded to a global prediction spanning the entire electrostatic chucking surface.
Among the potential sources of image placement (IP) error for extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) is the
deformation of the mask during electrostatic chucking. This paper focuses on the in-plane and out-of-plane distortion of
the EUVL reticle due to the entrapment of particles. Localized finite element (FE) models have been developed to
simulate the micro response of the reticle / particle / chuck system. To identify the macro response, global FE models
have been generated to simulate the system under typical chucking conditions. Parametric studies were performed to
illustrate the effect of particle size on the final IP accuracy.
Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) masks and mask chucks require extreme flatness in order to meet the performance and timing specified by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The EUVL Mask and Chucking Standards, SEMI P37 and SEMI P40, specify the nonflatness of the mask frontside and backside, as well as the chucking surface, to be no more than 50 nm peak-to-valley (p-v). Understanding and characterizing the clamping ability of the electrostatic chuck and its effect on the mask flatness is a critical issue. In the present study, chucking experiments were performed using an electrostatic pin chuck and finite element (FE) models were developed to simulate the chucking.
The frontside and backside surface flatness of several EUV substrates were measured using a Zygo large-area interferometer. Flatness data for the electrostatic chuck was also obtained and this data along with the substrate flatness data was used as the input for the FE modeling. Data from one substrate was selected for modeling and testing and is included in this paper. Electrostatic chucking experiments were conducted in a clean-room facility to minimize contamination due to particles. The substrate was chucked using an electrostatic pin chuck and the measured flatness was compared to the predictions obtained from the FE simulation.
The issues related to Raman scattering characterization of the microstructure of diamond thin films are reviewed. The optical effects of the transparent/absorbing composite of sp2/sp3 bonded material is discussed. Then the dependence of the Raman spectra on the microcrystalline size is described. The comparison is made with crystalline Si, and the analysis is applied to a series a diamond films. Lastly micro-Raman scattering from the initial stages of diamond film growth are described, and the results are correlated with STM measurements of the nuclei. Surface enhanced Raman scattering is applied to examine the regions between diamond nuclei.
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