This paper gives a review of the recent progresses in our research on nanophotonics and hybrid plasmonic
geometries, structures and devices. In the first part we present SOI-nanowire-based integrated components. The
concept and different configurations of hybrid plasmonic structures will be then discussed. Finally different
fabricated devices for applications in optical interconnects and sensing will be presented and characterized.
Development in photonics for communications and interconnects pose increasing requirements on reduction of footprint,
power dissipation and cost, as well as increased bandwidth. Nanophotonics integrated photonics has been viewed as a
solution to this, capitalizing on development in nanotechnology and an increased understanding of light matter
interaction on the nanoscale. The latter can be exemplified by plasmonics and low dimensional semiconductors such as
quantum dots (QDs). In this scenario the development of improved electrooptic materials is of great importance, the
electrooptic polymers being an example, since they potentially offer superior properties for optical phase modulators in
terms of power and integratability. Phase modulators are essential for e.g. the rapidly developing advanced modulation
formats, since phase modulation basically can generate any type of modulation. The electrooptic polymers, in
combination with plasmonics nanoparticle array waveguides or nanostructured hybrid plasmonic media can give
extremely compact and low power dissipation modulators. Low-dimensional semiconductors, e.g. in the shape of QDs,
can be employed for modulation or switching functions, offering possibilities for scaling to 2 or 3 dimensions for
advanced switching functions. In both the high field confinement plasmonics and QDs, the nanosizing is due to nearfield
interactions, albeit being of different physical origin in the two cases. Epitaxial integration of III-V structures on Si
plays an important role in developing high-performance light sources on silicon, eventually integrated with silicon
electronics. A brief remark on all-optical vs. electronically controlled optical switching systems is also given.
In this paper, we present our theoretical and experimental work on hybrid plasmonic microdisks. The 170 nm wide
access waveguide is first simulated and characterized, and shows a propagation loss about 0.08 dB/μm. 3-D FDTD
simulations are then used to investigate the lower limit of the bending radius of the hybrid plasmonic microdisk.
Microdisks with radius around 500 nm are fabricated, characterized, and analyzed. The 5th and 4th order resonances are
experimentally observed around 1412 nm and 1625 nm. The extinction ratios of the two resonances are measured to be
5.5dB and above 10dB, respectively. The measured intrinsic quality factors are 350 and 110, respectively. Comparisons
are also made between the theoretical and experimental results. The demonstrated ultra-small hybrid plasmonic
microdisk may find applications in low-power-consumption modulators, nano laser cavities with large Purcell-factor,
molecule sensors, and others.
The current development in photonics for communications and interconnects pose increasing requirements on reduction of footprint, power dissipation and cost, as well as increased bandwidth. Integrated nanophotonics has been viewed as one solution to this, capitalizing on development in nanotechnology as such as well as on increased insights into light matter interaction on the nanoscale. The latter can be exemplified by plasmonics and low-dimensional semiconductors such as quantum dots (QDs). In this scenario the development of better electrooptic materials is also of great importance, the electrooptic polymers being an example, since they potentially offer improved properties for optical phase modulators in terms of power and probably cost and general flexibility. Phase modulators are essential for e.g. the rapidly developing advanced modulation formats for telecom, since phase modulation basically can generate any type of modulation. The electrooptic polymers, e.g. in combination with plasmonics nanoparticle array waveguides or nanostructured hybrid plasmonic media can theoretically give extremely compact and low power dissipation modulators, still to be demonstrated. The low-dimensional semiconductors, e.g. in the shape of QDs, can be employed for modulation or switching functions, offering possibilities in the future for scaling to 2 or 3 dimensions for advanced switching functions. In both the plasmonics and QD cases, nanosizing and low power dissipation are generally due to near-field interactions, albeit being of different physical origin in the two cases. A comparison of all-optical and electronically controlled switching is given.
Silicon photonics is an emerging technology offering novel solutions in different areas requiring highly integrated
communication systems for optical networking, sensing, bio-applications and computer interconnects. Silicon photonicsbased
communication has many advantages over electric wires for multiprocessor and multicore macro-chip
architectures including high bandwidth data transmission, high speed and low power consumption. Following the
INTEL's concept to "siliconize" photonics, silicon device technologies should be able to solve the fabrication problems
for six main building blocks for realization of optical interconnects: light generation, guiding of light including
wavelength selectivity, light modulation for signal encoding, detection, low cost assembly including optical connecting
of the devices to the real world and finally the electronic control systems.
Metal nanoparticle arrays offer the possibility to considerably surpass the optical field confinement of silicon
waveguides. The properties of directional couplers composed of such plasmonic nanoarrays are analyzed theoretically,
while neglecting material losses. It is found that it is possible to generate very compact, submicron length, high fieldconfinement
and functionality devices with very low switch energies. We further perform a study of spatial losses in Ag
nanoparticle arrays by obtaining the group velocity and the lifetime of the surface plasmon polaritons. The losses are
determined for different host permittivities, polarizations, and for spherical and spheroidal particles, with a minimum
loss of 12 dB/μm. The possibilities to compensate the losses using gain materials, and the added noise associated with
that, is briefly discussed.
A variety of metamaterials has been demonstrated recently that support backward waves and negative refraction
(Negative Index Materials, NIM.) In particular, these materials enable sub-wavelength resolution that makes them even
more interesting, especially in optical domain rather than at microwave frequencies where their unusual properties were
known for decades. We describe below theoretical and experimental studies of the so-called 'fishnet' metal-spacer holearray
metamaterials, which exhibit NIM behavior at optical frequencies, having unit cell size of a few 100s nm. We
demonstrate experimentally that their refractive index can be modulated very fast and very strongly (from -2.4 to -1.5)
around the communication wavelength of λ1.55 um, in good agreement with the FDTD results. We also discuss a
problem of loss compensation in those materials with hefty Ohmic losses by using gain media and local field
enhancement in metallic nanoparticles ensembles that enable SERS.
Multiple streams of high definition television (HDTV) and improved home-working infrastructure are currently driving
forces for potential fiber to the home (FTTH) customers [1]. There is an interest to reduce the cost and physical size of
the FTTH equipment. The current fabrication methods have reached a cost minimum. We have addressed the costchallenge
by developing 1310/(1490)/1550nm bidirectional diplexers, by monolithic seamless integration of lasers,
photodiodes and wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) couplers into one single InP-based device. A 250nm wide
optical gain profile covers the spectrum from 1310 to 1550nm and is the principal building block. The device fabrication
is basically based on the established configuration of using split-contacts on continuos waveguides. Optical and electrical
cross-talks are further addressed by using a Y-configuration to physically separate the components from each other and
avoid inline configurations such as when the incoming signal travels through the laser component or vice versa. By the
eliminated butt-joint interfaces which can reflect light between components or be a current leakage path and by leaving
optically absorbing (unpumped active) material to surround the components to absorb spontaneous emission and nonintentional
reflections the devices are optically and electrically isolated from each other. Ridge waveguides (RWG) form
the waveguides and which also maintain the absorbing material between them. The WDM functionality is designed for a
large optical bandwidth complying with the wide spectral range in FTTH applications and also reducing the polarization
dependence of the WDM-coupler. Lasing is achieved by forming facet-free, λ/4-shifted, DFB (distributed feedback
laser) lasers emitting directly into the waveguide. The photodiodes are waveguide photo-diodes (WGPD). Our seamless
technology is also able to array the single channel diplexers to 4 to 12 channel diplexer arrays with 250μm fiber port
waveguide spacing to comply with fiber optic ribbons. This is an important feature in central office applications were
small physical space is important.
The characteristics of intersubband transitions in III-nitride quantum wells are promising for detectors and all-optical
switches through a high intrinsic speed (~1 THz), and can also provide a high optical saturation power and a desired
small negative chirp parameter in electroabsorption modulators. The high LO-phonon energy allows to improve the
operating temperature of THz emitters. Recent achievements and prospects for intersubband III-nitride photonic devices,
mainly for λ=1.55 μm, are briefly reviewed. Further, means to enhance material quality by achieving crack-free growth
of GaN/AlN multiple-quantum-well (MQW) structures, and by employing intersubband transitions in multiple-quantum-disk
(MQD) structures incorporated into dislocation free GaN nanocolumns are discussed. We investigate the occurrence
of cracks in MBE-grown GaN/AlN MQWs on GaN MOVPE templates with respect to the buffer layer, the number of
QWs and the temperature reduction rate after growth. Intersubband absorption in GaN/AlN MQDs in the wavelength
range 1.38-1.72 μm is demonstrated in three samples grown on Si(111).
We have used MBE to grow MQW structures on MOVPE GaN/sapphire templates. The MQW devices are intended for high speed intersubband electroabsorption modulator devices operating at 1.55-&mgr;m. The GaN/AlN multiple quantum well material was systematically studied regarding the surface morphology, structural characterization and optical property by atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, respectively. The intersubband resonance energy was also calculated considering many-body effects in n-type doped structures. The multiple quantum well structure showed superior performance in terms of linewidth when grown on GaN templates as compared on sapphire. GaN quantum well and AlN barriers with a thickness of 3.3 and 4.2 nm respectively resulted in FWHM of the intersubband absorption peak as low as 93 meV at an absorption energy of 700 meV. This is promising for intersubband modulator applications.
Progress in photonics and indeed in many areas of science and technology has in many cases been closely linked to development in materials. This development has in some cases been initiated by theoretical considerations and requirements formulation, in other cases novel materials have opened up unexpected applications. Examples of the former are given, where materials meeting certain requirements would lead to quantum leaps in device performance.
Electroabsorption modulators (EAM) based on quantum-confined Stark effect (QCSE) in multiplequantum
wells (MQW) have been demonstrated to provide high-speed, low drive voltage, and high
extinction ratio. They are compact in size and can be monolithically integrated with continuous-wave
(CW) lasers. In order to achieve both high speed and low drive-voltage operation, travelling-wave
(TW) electrode structures can be used for EAMs. The inherently low impedance of high-speed
EAMs may be transformed to values close to the standard 50Ohm impedance using periodic
microwave structures with a combination of passive transmission lines with high characteristic
impedance and active modulator sections with low impedance. Modulation bandwidths of 100GHz
(-3dBe) have been accomplished with electrical reflections lower than -10dB in a 50Ohm system.
Transmission at 80Gbit/s with non-return-to-zero (NRZ) code has been demonstrated for InP-based
TWEAMs using electronic time-domain multiplexing (ETDM), indicating the possibility of reaching
speeds of 100Gbit/s and beyond.
The design and manufacture of components and systems underpin the European and indeed worldwide
photonics industry. Optical materials and photonic components serve as the basis for systems building at
different levels of complexity. In most cases, they perform a key function and dictate the performance of
these systems.
New products and processes will generate economic activity for the European photonics industry into the
21st century. However, progress will rely on Europe's ability to develop new and better materials,
components and systems. To achieve success, photonic components and systems must:
•be reliable and inexpensive
•be generic and adaptable
•offer superior functionality
•be innovative and protected by Intellectual Property
•be aligned to market opportunities
The challenge in the short-, medium-, and long-term is to put a coordinating framework in place which will
make the European activity in this technology area competitive as compared to those in the US and Asia. In
the short term the aim should be to facilitate the vibrant and profitable European photonics industry to
further develop its ability to commercialize advances in photonic related technologies. In the medium and
longer terms the objective must be to place renewed emphasis on materials research and the design and
manufacturing of key components and systems to form the critical link between science endeavour and
commercial success.
All these general issues are highly relevant for the component intensive broadband communications
industry. Also relevant for this development is the convergence of data and telecom, where the low cost of
data com meets with the high reliability requirements of telecom.
The text below is to a degree taken form the Strategic Research Agenda of the Technology Platform
Photonics 21 [1], as this contains a concerted effort to iron out a strategy for EU in the area of photonics
components and systems.
One of the most distinctive features of photonic crystals (PhCs) is their unique wavelength dispersion allowing novel device concepts for enhancement of photonic functionality and performance. Here, we present examples of our design and demonstrations utilizing dispersion properties of 1D and 2D photonic crystals. This includes the demonstration of negative refraction in 2D PhC at optical wavelengths, filters based on 1D and 2D PhC waveguides, and the design of a widely tunable filter involving 1D PhC.
Photonics is far behind electronics in maturity. The devices are orders of magnitude larger than their electronics counterparts and the functionality is low. But it appears that these issues are not fundamentally impossible to solve. In this paper some of the emerging possibilities to overcome the limitations mentioned above are briefly treated, and we discuss the utilization of these comparatively new phenomena to widen the application envelope of photonics technology to generate functions not normally associated with photonics. These developments could lead to quantum leaps in photonics devices, to complement the forceful engineering improvements. Examples of such potential candidate research fields for quantum leaps are: Coherent light matter interaction, plasmonics, quantum information and communications, photonic crystals, intersubband based devices. The list is by no means exhaustive. This paper will concentrate on coherent light matter interaction, plasmonics and photonic crystals.
The coupling efficiency between external plane waves and the Bloch waves in photonic crystals are investigated. It is found that the coupling coefficient is highly angular dependent even for an interface between air n=1 and a photonic crystal with effective index -1. It is also shown that, for point imaging by a photonic crystal slab owing to the negative refraction, the influence of the surface termination to the transmission and the imaging quality is significant. Finally, we present results demonstrating experimentally negative refraction in a two-dimensional photonic crystal.
Optical add/drop filters using two-dimensional photonic crystals (PC’s) are presented for different designs. In-plane channel add/drop filter composed of two waveguides and an optical resonator system is very compact, but sensitive to the losses. While add/drop filter based on a contra-directional PC waveguide coupler is much more robust to the losses, and reasonable compactness is possible with careful designs. The possibility to utilize the PC dispersion properties to design optical filters is also discussed briefly.
Features such as large bandwidth, low drive voltage, compact size, and feasibility for monolithic laser integration make electro-absorption modulators (EAM) attractive candidates for ultra high-speed fiber-optical time division multiplexing (TDM). EAM with traveling-wave (TW) electrodes have successfully been demonstrated as a way to considerably increase the modulation bandwidth without sacrificing modulation efficiency. However, for reasonable modulation efficiency a low characteristic impedance (≈25Ω) has to be accepted. Termination with a matched load is necessary to benefit from the TW configuration. Thus, TWEAM with continuous impedance-matched transmission lines (TML) provide very high bandwidths, but suffer from high electrical return loss when using a 50Ω driver. A solution to this problem is to split up the modulator and insert passive TML segments between the active parts. The passive segments can be designed for a higher characteristic impedance than the active modulator parts with their inherently low impedance. In this way, the impedance seen at the electrical modulator input can be tailored for values that deliver optimum performance in combination with the available driving electronics (usually 50Ω). Only little bandwidth is sacrificed with the segmented design. Recently, we have demonstrated state-of-the-art performance of segmented TWEAM. These devices exhibit low electrical return loss (<-15dB) and a flat small signal modulation response in the characterized frequency range of 0.04 to 50GHz. 50Gb/s operation is demonstrated. An extinction of 10dB with 3Vp-p is achieved at 40Gb/s.
Photonic crystal waveguides in InP-based heterostructures are studied experimentally and theoretically. The waveguides are fabricated in an InP/GaInAsP/InP low index contrast heterostructure using Ar/Cl2 Chemical Assisted Ion Beam Etching, and characterized using the end-fire method. The obtained experimental near-infrared transmission spectra are further analyzed by comparing with theoretical results calculated by the finite-difference time-domain method. A loss of 1 dB/100 μm in the photonic crystal waveguides is demonstrated. The mini-stop bands, positioned in agreement with our theory, are observed. In-plane cavities with photonic crystal boundaries inside the waveguide are also realized. A quality factor of 400 for a 6 mm long cavity is obtained.
This paper discusses the potential use of polarisation selective phase modulators, PSPM, in interferometric
fiber optical sensors. The principle of the PSPM is shortly reviewed. Two examples of
the usefulness ofpolarisation selective phase modulation will be given. The first showing that PSPM
introduces a possibility to monitor two measurands, simultaneously, with the same interferometer.
In the second, a more detailed look at the consequences of using this concept in fiber optical gyros
wiibe presented. A formula is derived describing the suppression ofnoise due to polarisation coupling
in the gyro fiber loop. Using a special modulation and detection scheme, the PSPM shows to reduce
the noise with the same order of magnitude as a polarizer.
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