BEaTriX (Beam Expander Testing X-ray facility) is the new facility available at the INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico Brera (Merate, Italy) for the calibration of X-ray optics. Specifically designed to measure the point spread function (PSF) and the effective area (EA) of the mirror modules (MM) of the ATHENA X-ray telescope at their production rate, BEaTriX gives the unique possibility to test the optics with a source that approximate an astronomical source, i.e. with a large, parallel X-ray beam (170 × 60 mm2) that fully covers the entrance pupil of the MM. For a fast and precise testing, BEaTriX is a compact facility (9 × 18 m2) with fast vacuum pump-down (to 10-6 mbar), and an optical setup able to create the X-ray beam with a residual divergence of about 2-3 arcsec, HEW, and with a flux of 60 photons/s/cm2. The first beam line at the energy of 4.51 keV is now operative, and a second beam line, working at the energy of 1.49 keV, will be implemented in the coming future. The unique characteristics of the BEaTriX X-ray beam are obtained with an X-ray microfocus source placed in the focus of a paraboloidal mirror, a monochromation stage with 4 symmetrically cut crystals, and an expansion stage where the beam is diffracted and expanded by an asymmetrically-cut crystal. The beam, reflected by the MMs, is then imaged at 12 m distance, where a directly-illuminated CCD camera is placed. This paper presents the facility, the calibration of the beam and the latest results with the ATHENA MMs.
The BEaTriX (Beam Expander Testing X-ray) facility is now operative at the INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico Brera (Merate, Italy). This facility has been specifically designed and built for the X-ray acceptance tests (PSF and Effective Area) of the ATHENA Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) Mirror Modules (MM). The unique setup creates a parallel, monochromatic, large X-ray beam, that fully illuminates the aperture of the MMs, generating an image at the ATHENA focal length of 12 m. This is made possible by a microfocus X-ray source followed by a chain of optical components (a paraboloidal mirror, 2 channel cut monochromators, and an asymmetric silicon crystal) able to expand the X-ray beam to a 6 cm × 17 cm size with a residual divergence of 1.5 arcsec (vertical) × 2.5 arcsec (horizontal). This paper reports the commissioning of the 4.5 keV beam line, and the first light obtained with a Mirror Module.
BEaTriX (beam expander testing x-ray) is the compact (18m×9m) x-ray facility being implemented at INAF for the acceptance tests of the ATHENA silicon pore optics mirror modules (MM) working at the two energies of 1.49 and 4.51 keV. It adopts an innovative design based on a collimating mirror and Bragg crystals in proper configuration to provide a large and parallel beam. The 4.51 keV line provides a parallel beam with 170 mm×60 mm size and it has been calibrated and characterized in terms of intensity, uniformity, divergence and stability. This paper traces the path taken for the best-achieved alignment of the different optical components, from the preliminary phases to the final step where the function of merit was obtained directly from the parallel beam itself. The alignment method used a combination of optical and mechanical tools: laser tracker, micro-alignment telescope (MAT), 3D measuring machine (CMM) and self-designed holed plates. The final characterization of the x-ray beam is presented.
BEaTriX (Beam Expander Testing X-ray) is the X-ray facility under construction at the INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico Brera (Merate, Italy) to prove that it is possible to perform the X-ray acceptance tests (PSF and Aeff) of the ATHENA mirror modules at the required rate and with the required accuracy. The unique optical setup makes use of a micro-focus X-ray source with anode in Titanium, a paraboloidal mirror with small radius of curvature, and a set of crystals to monochromate and expand the beam to fully illuminate the entrance pupil of the ATHENA MMs. The quality of the optical components, and their precise alignment, guarantees the production of a parallel beam at 4.51 keV, to be extended in a second phase to 1.49 keV in order to complete the acceptance requirements for the ATHENA MMs. The completion of the facility is expected to occur in July this year, while the commissioning will start in September. In this paper, we present the current status.
The upgrade of the Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab to a Diffraction-Limited Storage Ring (DLSR) will feature four new and upgraded beamlines, designed to take full advantage of the coherence and high brightness of the insertion device source operating mostly in the soft x-ray regime (100–2000 eV). The round and highly coherent beam drives specific design choices for the photon transport optics and monochromator, and technical challenges in terms of performances, optical tolerances and stability. We have used the simulation tools Shadow (for raytracing) or SRW (wavefront propagation), and their implementation in OASYS and Sirepo to refine tolerance specifications, using their scripting capabilities and new add-ons to perform a comprehensive beamline analysis and confirm that specifications matched our performance requirements, taking into account partial coherence and issues related to heatload.
The advent of 4th generation high-energy synchrotron facilities (ESRF-EBS and the planned APS-U, PETRA-IV and SPring-8 II) and free-electron lasers (Eu-XFEL and LCLS-II) allied with the recent demonstration of high- quality free-form refractive optics for beam shaping and optical correction have revived interest in compound refractive lenses (CRLs) as optics for beam transport, probe formation in X-ray micro- and nano-analysis as well as for imaging applications. Ideal CRLs have long been made available in the 'Synchrotron Radiation Workshop' (SRW), however, the current context requires more sophisticated modelling of X-ray lenses. In this work, we revisit the already implemented wave-optics model for an ideal X-ray lens in the projection approximation and propose modifications to it as to allow more degrees of freedom to both the front and back surfaces independently, which enables to reproduce misalignments and manufacturing errors commonly found in X-ray lenses. For the cases where simply tilting and transversely offsetting the parabolic sections of a CRL is not enough, we present the possibility of generating the figure errors by using Zernike and Legendre polynomials or directly adding metrology data to the lenses. We present the effects of each new degree of freedom by calculating their impact on point spread function and the beam caustics.
In this paper we provide an update on the development of a novel cantilevered-liquid-nitrogen-cooled-silicon mirror for a new insertion device beamline included in the Advanced Light Source Upgrade (ALS-U). The goals of this mirror development are to achieve diffraction limited performance, demonstrate reliability, minimize coolant flow induced vibration, and demonstrate carbon contamination prevention and cleaning techniques. In this paper we summarize the design requirements, the design of the mirror system, and prototype fabrication.
Modern deterministic polishing processes allow fabrication of x-ray optics with almost any arbitrary aspherical surface shape. Among these optics, the so called “diaboloid” mirror is of special interest. The diaboloid mirror that converts a cylindrical wave to a spherical wave would improve focusing in x-ray beamlines implementing a diffraction element between a parabolic cylinder and a toroidal mirror. The replacement of the toroidal mirror in existing beamlines by the diaboloid mirror would mitigate aberrations. The shape of the diaboloid mirror is usually calculated numerically based on a truncated polynomial solution of the optical path problem. Here, we present an exact analytical solution for the shape of a diaboloid mirror as a function of the conjugate parameters of the mirror placed in a beamline. The derived analytical expressions for the diaboloid mirror in both the canonical and mirror-based coordinate systems are implemented in ray-tracing simulations to verify the beamline performances.
We describe the implementation of realistic, adaptive wavefront correction in high-brightness beamline simulations to study the correction of thermal deformation. Several planned soft x-ray and tender x-ray insertion-device beamlines in the Advanced Light Source upgrade, where wavefront preservation is paramount, rely on a common design principle.After studying the performance of a 20-channel adaptive x-ray mirror prototype, at-wavelength and with visible-light, we implemented mirror shape-control algorithms in software that are designed to restore and optimize the focused beam intensity (i.e. Strehl ratio), considering the incident wavefront’s phase and amplitude. We implemented the modeling in OASYS which is an adaptable, customizable beamline modeling platform well suited to study this issue.
The construction of BEaTriX, the Beam Expander Testing X-ray facility, is underway at INAF-OAB (Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera). This laboratory-based X-ray source was designed to generate a broad (170 mm x 60 mm), uniform, and collimated X-ray beam, with a residual divergence of 1.5 arcsec HEW at either 1.49 keV and 4.51 keV. The main scientific driver for BEaTriX is represented by the opportunity to routinely calibrate the modular elements of the ATHENA (ESA) X-ray telescope, based on the silicon pore optics (SPO) technology. Nevertheless, the application domain of BEaTriX is potentially much wider (e.g., X-ray tomography). BEaTriX comprises a microfocus source of X-rays, followed by an optical chain including a collimating mirror, crystal monochromators, and an asymmetric beam expander. The final beam collimation and homogeneity relies on the optical quality of the optical components (X-ray source dimension, mirror polishing, crystal lattice regularity) and on their mutual alignment. In order to determine the most critical parameters, focus the development efforts, and establish specifications, a set of optical simulations has been built. Our paper describes the simulation tool we developed to this specific aim, and discusses the results achieved in terms of manufacturing and alignment tolerances.
The ATHENA X-ray telescope comprises an optical system with several hundreds of Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) Mirror Modules (MM) to be assembled. All the MMs have to be tested for acceptance before integration. INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico Brera is building in its premises of Merate (Italy) a unique pathfinder facility, BEaTriX, which is characterized by a broad (170 ×60 mm2), uniform and parallel X-ray beam (divergence ≤ 1.5 arcsec HEW) at the energies of 1.49 and 4.51 keV. BEaTriX prime goal is to prove that it is possible to perform the acceptance tests (PSF and Aeff) of the ATHENA SPO MM’s at the production rate of 3 MM/day. The system is very compact (9 × 18 m2) and it is designed with modular compartments where the vacuum can be broken independently to replace the optics under test. It works at a vacuum level of 10-3 mbar, easily evacuated in a short time. The expanded and parallel beam is obtained with an X-ray microfocus source placed in the focus of a paraboloidal mirror, a monochromation stage with 4 symmetrically cut crystals, and an expansion stage where the beam is diffracted and expanded by an asymmetrically-cut crystal. The key axes of all the optical components are motorized in vacuum for a proper beam alignment. The expanded beam fully illuminates the aperture of the MMs, imaging the focused beam at 12 m distance on a CCD camera, with the sensor in vacuum and motorized in air for XYZ movements. A thermal box is also present to radiatively heat the MM and check its optical performances under different temperatures. The design of the facility started in 2012 and has been finalised under an ESA contract. After completing the design, the facility is now in the realization phase. This paper provides an overview of the current status of the facility realization.
ATHENA Silicon Pore Optics (SPO) Mirror Modules (MM) have to be tested and accepted prior to integration in the full ATHENA Mirror Assembly (MA). X-ray tests of the MMs are currently performed at the PTB laboratory of the BESSY synchrotron facility in pencil beam configuration, but they require a PSF reconstruction. Full illumination X-ray tests could be performed using a broad, low-divergent X-ray beam like the one in use at PANTER (MPE, Neuried, Germany), but the large volume to be evacuated makes it impossible to perform the functional tests at the MMs production rate (3 MM/day).
To overcome these limitations, we started in 2012 to design a facility aimed at generating a broad (170 x 60 mm2), uniform and low-divergent (1.5 arcsec HEW) X-ray beam within a small lab (∼ 9 x 18 m2), to characterize the ATHENA MM. BEaTriX (the Beam Expander Testing X-ray facility) makes use of an X-ray microfocus source, a paraboloidal mirror, a crystal monochromation system, and an asymmetrically-cut diffracting crystal for the beam expansion. These optical components, in addition to a modular low-vacuum level (10-3 mbar), enable to match the ATHENA SPO acceptance requirements.
The realization of this facility at INAF-OAB in Merate (Italy) is now on going. Once completed, BEaTriX can be used to test the Silicon Pore Optics modules of the ATHENA X-ray observatory, as well as other optics, like the ones of the Arcus mission. In this paper we report the advancement status of the facility.
The construction of the BEaTriX (Beam Expander Testing X-ray) facility is ongoing at INAF/Osservatorio astronomico di Brera. The facility will generate a broad (170 x 60 mm2 ), uniform and low-divergent (1.5 arcsec HEW) X-ray beam within a small lab (∼ 9 x 18 m2 ), using an X-ray microfocus source, a paraboloidal mirror, a monochromation system based on a combination of symmetrically cut and asymmetrically-cut crystals in Bragg diffraction configuration. Once completed, BEaTriX can be used to test the Silicon Pore Optics modules of the ATHENA X-ray observatory, as well as other optics, like the ones of the Arcus mission. The facility is designed to operate at 1.49 keV and 4.51 keV, by using two fixed beam lines, equipped with the necessary optical elements. The first beam line to be completed will be at 4.51 keV and will prove the BEaTriX concept. Silicon crystals are used at this energy and four symmetric diffractions, with appropriate tilt of some crystals, will provide the spectral filtering at the required level to return the desired divergence. Owing to the quite short range necessary to obtain a parallel beam with this setup, a low vacuum level (10-3 mbar) can be used without a significant beam extinction. In addition to a modular vacuum approach, the low vacuum will allow us to reduce the time required to evacuate the tank, thus enabling to demonstrate a test rate that will match the ATHENA SPO production of 3 MM/day. In this paper, we report the design of the facility and the construction progress.
In the next years most of the major synchrotron radiation facilities around the world will upgrade to 4th-generation Diffraction Limited Storage Rings using multi-bend-achromat technology. Moreover, several Free Electron Lasers are ready-to-go or in phase of completion. These events represent a huge challenge for the optics physicists responsible of designing and calculating optical systems capable to exploit the revolutionary characteristics of the new photon beams. Reliable and robust beamline design is nowadays based on sophisticated computer simulations only possible by lumping together different simulation tools. The OASYS (OrAnge SYnchrotron Suite) suite drives several simulation tools providing new mechanisms of interoperability and communication within the same software environment. OASYS has been successfully used during the conceptual design of many beamline and optical designs for the ESRF and Elettra- Sincrotrone Trieste upgrades. Some examples are presented showing comparisons and benchmarking of simulations against calculated and experimental data.
The evolution of the hardware platforms, the modernization of the software tools, the access to the codes of a large number of young people and the popularization of the open source software for scientific applications drove us to design OASYS (ORange SYnchrotron Suite), a completely new graphical environment for modelling X-ray experiments. The implemented software architecture allows to obtain not only an intuitive and very-easy-to-use graphical interface, but also provides high flexibility and rapidity for interactive simulations, making configuration changes to quickly compare multiple beamline configurations. Its purpose is to integrate in a synergetic way the most powerful calculation engines available. OASYS integrates different simulation strategies via the implementation of adequate simulation tools for X-ray Optics (e.g. ray tracing and wave optics packages). It provides a language to make them to communicate by sending and receiving encapsulated data. Python has been chosen as main programming language, because of its universality and popularity in scientific computing. The software Orange, developed at the University of Ljubljana (SLO), is the high level workflow engine that provides the interaction with the user and communication mechanisms.
A new graphic environment to drive X-ray optics simulation packages such as SHADOW and SRW is proposed. The
aim is to simulate a virtual experiment, including the description of the electron beam and simulate the emitted
radiation, the optics, the scattering by the sample and radiation detection. Python is chosen as common interaction
language. The ingredients of the new application, a glossary of variables for optical component, the selection of
visualization tools, and the integration of all these components in a high level workflow environment built on Orange
are presented.
One dimensional spatially resolved high resolution x-ray spectroscopy with spherically bent crystals and 2D pixelated
detectors is an established technique on magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) experiments world wide for Doppler
measurements of spatial profiles of plasma ion temperature and flow velocity. This technique is being further developed
for diagnosis of High Energy Density Physics (HEDP) plasmas at laser-plasma facilities and synchrotron/x-ray free
electron laser (XFEL) facilities. Useful spatial resolution (micron scale) of such small-scale plasma sources requires
magnification, because of the finite pixel size of x-ray CCD detectors (13.5 μm). A von-Hamos like spectrometer using
spherical crystals is capable of magnification, as well as uniform sagittal focusing across the full x-ray spectrum, and is
being tested in laboratory experiments using a tungsten-target microfocus (5-10 μm) x-ray tube and 13-μm pixel x-ray
CCD. A spatial resolution better than 10 μm has been demonstrated. Good spectral resolution is indicated by small
differences (0.02 – 0.1 eV) of measured line widths with best available published natural line widths. Progress and status
of HEDP measurements and the physics basis for these diagnostics are presented. A new type of x-ray crystal
spectrometer with a convex spherically bent crystal is also reported. The status of testing of a 2D imaging microscope
using matched pairs of spherical crystals with x rays will also be presented. The use of computational x-ray optics codes
in development of these instrumental concepts is addressed.
The ESRF Upgrade includes construction of long beamlines to use routinely nano-beams. This requires a very high
demagnification of the ESRF source, which makes beamline optics design a fundamental concept for the future
availability of bright and small stable beam. A summary of recent simulations for Upgrade beamlines is presented,
including transfocators, bent crystals and graded multilayers. Some examples of particular calculations are described. In
parallel to the Upgrade Programme, an ambitious project for the upgrade and integration of existing software and
development of new toolbox is been carried out, with particular interest in beam polarization and partial coherence.
A hybrid method combining ray-tracing and wavefront propagation was recently developed for X-ray optics
simulation and beamline design optimization. One major application of the hybrid method is its ability to assess
the effects of figure errors on the performance of focusing mirrors. In the present work, focusing profiles of
mirrors with different figure errors are simulated using three available wave optics methods: the hybrid code
based on the Fourier optics approach, the stationary phase approximation and a technique based on the direct
Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction integral. The advantages and limitations of each wave optics method are discussed.
We also present simulations performed using the figure errors of an elliptical cylinder mirror measured at APS
using microstitching interferometry. These results show that the hybrid method provides accurate and quick
evaluation of the expected mirror performance making it a useful tool for designing diffraction-limited focusing
beamlines.
We describe the new implementation in the ray-tracing code SHADOW based on a “hybrid method” developed
recently. The code calculates the diffraction effects from an optical element by means of wavefront propagation,
and combines the result with that from regular ray-tracing. This hybrid procedure is invoked when diffraction is
present (e.g., beam clipped by an aperture or the finite size of the optics) by user demand. The code enables the
simulation of mirror figure errors in the framework of wave optics. The simulation of a complete beamline based
on the far-field approximation is demonstrated. The near-field propagation is also implemented for individual
optics. Finally, the applicable conditions and limitations of the new code are discussed.
High resolution (λ/Δλ ~10,000) 1D imaging x-ray spectroscopy using a spherically bent crystal and a 2D hybrid pixelarray detector (PAD) is used world wide for Doppler measurements of ion-temperature (Ti) and plasma flow-velocityprofiles in magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) plasmas. Meter sized plasmas are diagnosed with cm spatial resolution and 10 ms time resolution. This concept can also be used as a diagnostic of small sources, such as inertial confinement fusion (ICF) plasmas and targets on x-ray light source beam lines, with spatial resolution of microns. A new concept of using matched pairs of spherically bent crystals for monochromatic stigmatic 2D x-ray imaging of mm sized sources offers the possibility of spatial resolution of microns and large solid angle, relative to that achieved with pinhole imaging. Other potential applications of the 2D imaging schemes include x-ray lithography and x-ray microscopy for biological and materials science research. Measurements from MFE plasmas, as well as laboratory experiments and ray tracing computations validating the 1D imaging spectroscopy and 2D x-ray imaging techniques will be presented.
A computer tool for the evaluation of the absorbed and re-scattered power from optical elements in a synchrotron
beamline has been written using the Monte Carlo package PENELOPE. A precise estimation of this power is
needed to assist in the design of the shielding inside the optical chambers that receive high power, like for the
Upgrade Programme at the ESRF. The results for scattered power calculation are presented for three cases i) a
Glidcop mirror for the SESAME Synchrotron, ii) a silicon crystal in use at the ESRF beamline ID06, and iii) a
Laue crystal for the new monochromator of the ESRF ID17 beamline.
We developed the third version of SHADOW, a ray tracing software widely used to design optical system in the synchrotron world. SHADOW3 is written in Fortran 2003 and follows the new computer engineering standards. The users can always execute the program in the traditional file oriented approach. Moreover, advanced users can create personalized scripts, macros and executables using the new Application Programming Interface SHADOW3-API. It also allows binding of SHADOW3 with several popular programming languages
such as C, C++, python and IDL. We describe the SHADOW3 API structure, and illustrate its use with some examples.
We analyze the possibilities of running SHADOW3 in parallel machines under different environments. A
version using the Open Message Parsing Interface has been implemented. A SHADOW3 postprocessor has been
accelerated with the use Graphics Processing Units. This will open new possibilities to extend the already very
popular ray tracing tool to applications simulating 2D and 3D experiments (like imaging, tomography)
XOP v2.4 consists of a collection of computer programs for calculation of radiation characteristics of X-ray sources and
their interaction with matter. Many of the programs calculate radiation from undulators and wigglers, but others, such as
X-ray tube codes, are also available. The computation of the index of refraction and attenuation coefficients of optical
elements using user-selectable databases containing optical constants is an important part of the package for calculation
of beam propagation. Coupled computations are thus feasible where the output from one program serves as the input to
another program. Recent developments including enhancements to existing programs are described.
We present the conceptual design of a dispersive X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS) beamline for MIRRORCLE,
a new compact laboratory X-ray source. This machine accelerates electrons up to 1,4,6 or 20MeV
(depending upon the model) in a ring and produces X-rays when the electrons collide onto a thin target. The
radiation emitted has a white spectrum due to both synchrotron and bremsstrahlung emission. A substantial
part of the electrons are recovered after collisions, and the emitted light has high flux, wide energy spectrum
and a large angular dispersion.
We have opted for a simple beamline design using a collimator, slits, a curved crystal, the sample environment
and a CCD. The beamline parameters (position of the mirror, ray of curvature, slit aperture, reflecting angle, etc.)
have been optimized by defining and improving a figure of merit. This optimization allows for room constraints
(distances among elements), mechanical constraints (minimum curvature radii available) and optical constraints.
Further ray tracing simulations using SHADOW3 have been performed to check all the theoretical results, refine
the final parameters, quantitative flux calculations and for simulating the image on the CCD camera.
Recent advances in x-ray detection technology and diagnostic design have dramatically improved the ability
of using x-ray imaging and spectroscopic diagnostics to accurately measure important parameters in magnetically
confined and laser produced fusion plasmas. With these advancements, the detailed characterization
of the diagnostic system properties has become ever more important. We present an overview of current
and future x-ray diagnostic requirements for fusion plasmas and describe, in particular, diagnostic systems
employing spherically bent crystals to resolving characteristic x-ray lines from trace impurities with energies
in the range 1-20keV. The requirements and challenges for the simulation of existing and planned diagnostic
installations and are discussed.
This work presents the recent developments of xraylib, an ANSI C library designed to provide convenient access
to a large number of X-ray related databases, with a focus on quantitative XRF applications. The discussed
enhancements include improved XRF production cross sections that take into account cascade effects and M-lines,
as well as revised line energies, atomic level widths, Compton broadening profiles etc. A full overview is
presented of the complete API.
we present the developments of the McXtrace project, a free, open source software package based on Monte
Carlo ray tracing for simulations and optimisation of complete X-ray instruments.
The methodology of building a simulation is presented through an example beamline, namely Beamline 811
at MAX-lab, Lund, Sweden - a beamline dedicated to materials science.
XOP is a user-friendly computer environment for performing calculations of interest to the synchrotron radiation community. It provides codes for: i) modeling x-ray sources (e.g., synchrotron sources, such as undulators and wigglers), ii) calculating characteristics of optical elements (mirrors, filters, crystals, multilayers, etc.), and iii) multipurpose data visualization and analyses. The XOP functionality can be extended with external plug-ins (extensions). We describe the status of XOP including recent developments in the current version (XOP 2.11). Plans for the future will also be presented.
We present a Monte-Carlo algorithm for the simulation of Bragg diffraction from imperfect crystals that are used for neutron analysers and monochromators. The algorithm is used in ray-tracing simulation of neutron instruments but can also be used for x-rays. This method performs a detailed description of the particle interaction with the microscopic regions composing the crystal. It computes important quantities that cannot be calculated with standard models, as the number of multiple scattering events, and diffraction topographs. We also discuss applications of this method to the analysis of x-ray data from mosaic copper crystals.
A number of future hard X-ray (10-100 keV) telescopes will implement focusing optics with multilayer coatings. In this framework, we are developing (at INAF/Brera-Merate Astronomical Observatory) multilayer optics based on the e-beam deposition technique: this approach is suitable to coat very large surfaces at an high deposition rate; in order to test the performances of the deposited samples, X-ray reflectivity scans at the two "standard" photon energies of 8.05 and 17.4 keV are taken, returning very positive results with high peak reflectivities. However, the exact interpretation of the reflectivity curves is a complex task since it depends on a large number of parameters: the software PPM (Pythonic Program for Multilayers) has been recently developed by A. Mirone (ESRF) specifically to the aim of a friendly and fast determination of the parameters of multilayer structures. In particular, for this paper we present the layer-by-layer modelization of the characteristics (roughness, density, thickness) of multilayer stacks (Ni/C, Pt/C) by a multi-parametric "global" automatic optimization to reach the best fitting performances. In order to physically constrain the parameters, the data will be compared with the results of TEM measurements performed on the same samples, when available.
The Neutron Optics Package NOP is a collection of codes for the computation of reactor spectra, neutron reflectivity of crystals, mirrors and multilayers and other quantities as cross-sections, attenuation in materials and refractive index. These calculations rely on the use of a databse of materials cross-sections and crystal structures. NOP is freely distributed as an extension of the x-ray package XOP [M. Sanchez del Rio and R.J. Dejus, SPIE proceedings 3448, 340, 1998.], from which it inherites the user interface and code structure. The NOP package can be used for estimating the reflectivity of optical elements as crystals and multilayers. The NOP output can also be used as an input for neutron instrument ray-tracing modules.
We present a very simple formula for calculating the total number of photons of an x-ray beam after being monochromatized by a double crystal monochromator. This is a typical case for most synchrotron radiation beamlines. The derivation of the formula and its numerical benchmarking by ray-tracing simulations are also presented.
New approaches of a spectrally tunable backlighting schemes based on a spherically bent crystal are considered. In a contrary to the traditional backlighting scheme, in which the investigated objects should be placed between the backlighter and the crystal, for the considered schemes an object is placed downstream of the crystal, before the tangential or after the sagittal focus and an image of the object is recorded at the distance from the object corresponded to the needed magnification. The magnification is defined by the ratio of the distances form the sagittal focus to the detector and from the object to the sagittal focus. A ray tracing modeling and experimental images of test meshes, obtained at an incidence angles of the backlighter radiation of 10° and 22°, are presented. It is demonstrated that, at incident angles up to 22°, a linear transformation of the obtained astigmatic images allows to reconstruct them with an accuracy (5 - 15%). A spatial resolution around 10 μm in a field of view of some mm2 is achieved, for the spectral range around 9 Å. It is also demonstrated that spherically bent crystals could be used for X-ray imaging of a self emitting plasma structures with a spatial resolution at least 50 μm in a field of view of some square millimeters for angles of incidence up to 22°.
A novel experimental setup for transmission x-ray microscopy is presented. It is based on the use of a point isotropic x- ray source and a single spherical crystal. The x-ray beam intensity is modulated by the object attenuation, then monochromatized and enlarged using a spherical crystal and, lastly, imaged using a detector downstream of the crystal. We demonstrate by ray tracing technique and experimental testing that this system allows microscopy studies with image resolution better than the dimensions of the source, high magnification ratios, and great field of view. Microscopes using this model ca be easily built using different micro x-ray sources, like conventional x-ray tube generators, x-rays emitted by laser generated plasmas or synchrotron radiation. Utilization of spherically bent crystals to obtain high-resolution, large field, monochromatic images in a wide range of Bragg angles is demonstrated for the first time. High quality monochromatic images with high magnification about 15-35 times and spatial resolution over a large field of view were obtained. Some possible applications and preliminary experimental verification of the feasibility of the setup are also presented.
Many software programs are available in the market for the design of optical instruments. However, most of them are not suitable for modeling x-ray optical elements. The simulation of the x-ray source characteristics (emission, geometry) strongly depends on the type of generator used (synchrotron insertion devices, FEL, x-ray tube, laser-generated plasma, etc.). The optical elements are usually grazing mirrors, multilayers and crystals, with very different characteristics than optical elements used in other photon ranges. In addition, the reflectivities of such optical devices must be calculated taking into account tabulated optical constants. In the last years we have developed a new approach for creating a common tool for x-ray optics and sources modeling, lumping together small programs from different origins and authors, adding an unified x-ray database and gluing all this in a user-friendly and powerful data manipulation environment. The result is the XOP code which is now used in many synchrotron facilities. In addition to the first level calculations available in XOP, we have incorporated an interface to the popular x-ray tracing code SHADOW that allows the simulation of the complete beamline and produces accurate values of beam sizes, divergences, flux and energy resolution. I will review the present state of XOP and the SHADOW Visual Interface. I will then present the plans for a new version in preparation. Then I will discuss new ideas and possible requirements for simulating the forthcoming x-ray optics for fourth generation x-ray sources.
In recent years there has been a continuous interest in applying ray-tracing techniques for simulating the performance of neutron instruments. This technique is well known for other applications dealing with photon beams (visible, IR, UV and X-rays). Several codes have been developed by different groups to either calculate, with high accuracy, some particular optical elements of a neutron instrument, or to give rough estimations of the whole instrument including simple models of the individual elements. Our goal is to create an optimised code for neutron optics using accurate descriptions for each optical element. In this paper we will analyse the existing models for treating mosaic crystals monochromators. We will report on the calculated and measured diffraction properties of mosaic copper and pyrolytic graphite crystals, which are two of the most commonly used neutron monochromators.
The x-ray reflectivity of a multilayer is a non-linear function of many parameters (materials, layer thicknesses, densities, roughness). Non-linear fitting of experimental data with simulations requires to use initial values sufficiently close to the optimum value. This is a difficult task when the space topology of the variables is highly structured, as in our case. The application of global optimization methods to fit multilayer reflectivity data is presented. Genetic algorithms are stochastic methods based on the model of natural evolution: the improvement of a population along successive generations. A complete set of initial parameters constitutes an individual. The population is a collection of individuals. Each generation is built from the parent generation by applying some operators (e.g. selection, crossover, mutation) on the members of the parent generation. The pressure of selection drives the population to include 'good' individuals. For large number of generations, the best individuals will approximate the optimum parameters. Some results on fitting experimental hard x-ray reflectivity data for Ni/C multilayers recorded at the ESRF BM5 are presented. This method could be also applied to the help in the design of multilayers optimized for a target application, like for an astronomical grazing-incidence hard X-ray telescopes.
We have measured the hard X-ray reflectivity and imaging performance from depth graded W/Si multilayer coated mirror segments mounted in a single reflection cylindrical prototype for the hard X-ray telescopes to be flown on the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon mission. Data have been obtained in the energy range from 18 - 170 keV at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and at the Danish Space Research Institute at 8 keV. The modeling of the reflectivity data demonstrate that the multilayer structure can be well described by the intended power law distribution of the bilayer thicknesses optimized for the telescope performance and we find that all the data is consistent with an interfacial width of 4.5 angstroms. We have also demonstrated that the required 5% uniformity of the coatings is obtained over the mirror surface and we have shown that it is feasible to use similar W/Si coatings for much higher energies than the nominal energy range of HEFT leading the way for designing Gamma-ray telescopes for future astronomical applications. Finally we have demonstrate 35 arcsecond Half Power Diameter imaging performance of the one bounce prototype throughout the energy range of the HEFT telescopes.
Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite is a very efficient and well-known x-ray and neutron monochromator. The crystal macroscopic properties are determined by its microscopic structure. Our aim is to study the crystal internal structure and correlate it with the crystal optical behavior. We studied the texture of the crystal, in particular its spatial homogeneity, for different samples using x-ray diffraction topography. The experiment was performed at the ESRF beamline BM5 using a laminar 18 keV monochromatic beam. Several samples supplied by different manufacturers have been studied. Images of (002) reflected beam have been acquired at the Bragg angle for each sample, using a phosphor coated CCD digital detector. Contrast profiles have been obtained, and exponential fits has been performed allowing to deduce the secondary extinction coefficient. It has been found that some samples are quite perfect and the results agree with ideally imperfect crystals model. Other samples present well defined granular macrostructures (with dimensions of tens of microns) superposed to the well-known Gaussian-like crystallite distribution. The different behavior between different samples should be explained in terms of sample internal structure, which is also related to the different graphitization process used by manufacturers.
We have performed x-ray specular reflectivity and scattering measurements of thermally slumped glass substrates on x-ray diffractometers utilizing a rotating anode x-ray source at the Danish Space Research Institute (DSRI) and synchrotron radiation at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) optics Bending Magnet beamline. In addition, we tested depth graded W/Si multilayer-coated slumped glass using x-ray specular reflectivity measurements at 8.048 keV and 28 keV and energy-dispersive measurements in the 20-50 keV rang at a double-axis diffractometer at the Orsted Laboratory, University of Copenhagen. The thermally slumped glass substrates will be used to fabricate the hard x-ray grazing incidence optics for the High-Energy Focusing Telescope. We compared the measurements to the SODART- mirrors from the SRG telescope mission program. The surface scatter measurement of the thermally slumped glass substrates yields Half Power Diameters (HPD's) of single- bounce mirrors of full-illuminated lengths of approximately 40 arcseconds for typical substrates and as low as approximately 10 arcseconds for the best substrates, whereas the SODART mirrors yields HPD's of approximately 80 arcseconds with very little variation. Both free-standing glass substrates and prototype mounted and multilayer-coated optics were tested. The result demonstrate that the surface scatter contribution, plus any contribution from the mounting procedure, to the Half Power Diameter from a telescope using the slumped glass optics will be in the subarcminute range.In addition we measured low surface microroughness, yielding high reflectivity, from the glass substrates, as well as from the depth graded W/Si multilayer-coated glass.
XOP (X-ray OPtics utilities) is a graphical user interface (GUI) to run computer programs that calculate basic information needed by synchrotron radiation beamline scientists and engineers. It can also be used as a front end for specific codes or packages for data analysis and data reduction (XAFS, surface crystallography, etc.). XOP contains a customized database for optical and atomic constants. It has a flexible design and new applications may be added. The capabilities of XOP, including those related to simulations of crystal diffraction profiles and multilayer reflectivities, are summarized. We discuss the most recent developments to be included in XOP version 2.0. A few other examples of typical calculations are: insertion device (undulator and wiggler) spectra and angular distributions, mirror and multilayer reflectivities, and crystal diffraction profiles. The computer programs are executed and the results are analyzed within the GUI, which makes them fast and easy to use. The XOP interface is written in the Interactive Data Language (IDL) from Research Systems Inc., and it runs on the Unix (HP, Sun, Linux, DEC-Alpha, and Silicon Graphics), and on the Windows 95/NT operating systems. It has been built with an IDL license embedded and is available under some limited conditions free of charge from the authors.
A review of the physical models for crystal optics in a ray tracing program is presented. X-ray monochromators and analyzers for synchrotron radiation applications in both Bragg (reflection) and Laue (transmission) geometries can be simulated with this method. Ray tracing calculations for several high-resolution and focusing geometries are presented, demonstrating the suitability of the ray tracing method for the design and optimization x-ray crystal optics. Possible applications to study the crystal effects on partially coherent beams are also outlined. All these systems have been modeled in the framework of the ray tracing program SHADOW. For increasing the visual and post-processing functionality of SHADOW we developed a front-end library an a Visual User Interface available from the author.
X-ray instruments with mosaic crystals are proposed and used in many applications in synchrotron radiation, medical physics and astrophysics. These crystals present a parafocusing of the x-ray beam in the diffraction plane, which is thoroughly analyzed in this paper. We studied the evolution of the cross- section of the diffracted beam, using several samples of Highly Oriented Pyrolythic Graphite crystals coming from different suppliers. The experiment has been performed at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (beamline BM5). The results clearly show a parafocusing effect in the 1:1 magnification ratio along the diffraction plane and a defocusing effect along the perpendicular plane. The secondary extinction coefficient is also measured.
Various theoretical methods for calculating diffraction profiles of perfect crystals are available in literature. Although these methods hold within certain validity ranges due to their inherent approximations, they constitute the current state-of-the-art of numerical computation of diffraction profiles. In this paper we summarize the theory of Zachariasen for flat crystals, the multi-lamellar approximation for bent crystals and the Penning-Polder approximation for bent Laue crystals. Some examples of their results are presented. Another method to calculate the diffraction profile consists in solving the Takagi-Taupin equations. The finite difference method, that provides a numerical solution of these equations, is briefly discussed. A new method for solving numerically these equations using the finite element method is proposed. This method is very flexible, because it can consider a crystal with an arbitrary shape and cover the case of critical regime (i.e., inhomogeneities and deformations) with fine elements. In addition, it can couple naturally the diffraction calculation with thermal or mechanical crystal deformations. These deformations are generally induced by the x-ray beam (heat load), the crystal bender (mechanical stress) or are intrinsic to the crystal (inhomogeneities, impurities, dislocations, etc.). An example of the feasibility of this method is shown.
Ray-tracing plays an essential role for the design of a synchrotron radiation beamline optics. Nevertheless, it can also be extremely useful during the commissioning phase of a beamline. At that moment, it is possible to include real surface figure errors in the computer simulation of the optical devices. The resulting focal spot size and photon flux values are the final targets for the experimental optimization and alignment of the optics setup. We report on extensive ray-tracing of the mirror systems of the two beamlines placed at the ESRF insertion device 12. Slope errors measured after mirror delivery are included in the calculations. It is demonstrated how slope errors with characteristic periodicity between 1 and ca. 1/20 of the mirror length can affect the focal spot shape, size and position. In particular, they can create structures or satellites in the focal spot. The distortions from the ideal shape are generated by the polishing process itself and are intrinsic to each single mirror. Comparison between the effects of slope errors in ray-tracing using either real (measured) surfaces or numerically generated ones are also reported.
XOP (X-ray OPtics utilities) is a graphical user interface (GUI) created to execute several computer programs that calculate the basic information needed by a synchrotron beamline scientist (designer or experimentalist). Typical examples of such calculations are: insertion device (undulator or wiggler) spectral and angular distributions, mirror and multilayer reflectivities, and crystal diffraction profiles. All programs are provided to the user under a unified GUI, which greatly simplifies their execution. The XOP optics applications (especially mirror calculations) take their basic input (optical constants, compound and mixture tables) from a flexible file-oriented database, which allows the user to select data from a large number of choices and also to customize their own data sets. XOP includes many mathematical and visualization capabilities. It also permits the combination of reflectivities from several mirrors and filters, and their effect, onto a source spectrum. This feature is very useful when calculating thermal load on a series of optical elements. The XOP interface is written in the IDL (Interactive Data Language). An embedded version of XOP, which freely runs under most Unix platforms (HP, Sun, Dec, Linux, etc) and under Windows95 and NT, is available upon request.
We report on the status of the first Italian Infrared Synchrotron Radiation Beamline SINBAD (Synchrotron INfrared Beamline At DA(Phi) NE), that has been designed to work at wavelengths greater than 10 micrometers . SINBAD is being installed on DA(Phi) NE, the new collider of the Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati designed to work at 0.51 GeV with a beam current of 2 to 5 A. The infrared radiation extracted from a bending magnet under an angle of 50 X 50 mrad will be two orders of magnitude more brilliant than that of a black body at 2000 K at a wavelength of 100 micrometers . The beamline layout, which consists of two planar mirrors, two toroidal mirrors and one aspherical mirror, has been designed by ray tracing simulation. In this layout one ellipsoid focuses the radiation on a wedged CVD diamond-film window, the beam is then re-focused again on the entrance of an interferometer. With a calculated transmittance of the optics between 60% and 80% at 50 micrometers , this beamline will allow experiments which require a very high brilliance in the far infrared.
The focused white beam on beamline 3 is produced by the joint action of a windulator insertion device coupled to a tunable toroidal mirror. It is shown that this combination gives the highest possible flux density at the sample position. The intensity is sufficient to record single bunch Laue pattern from smaller proteins containing up to 1200 reflections per image. The possibilities of increasing the flux further by going to mini gap wundulators are also discussed. A comparison between a low (beta) and a high (beta) undulator is discussed in an attempt to boost the time resolving power in monochromatic experiments.
SC409: Computer Simulations and Ray-Tracing for Hard X-Ray Optics
Optics simulation software is increasingly used for the design and optimization of x-ray instruments, in particular synchrotron beamlines. This course is an introduction to the use of general optics tools and ray-tracing calculations for hard x-ray applications. It will be based on the computer codes XOP and SHADOW (freely available).
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