The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is an ambitious project to build the world’s largest radio telescope to revolutionize our understanding of the Universe and the laws of fundamental physics. Geographically distributed between three host countries, and with more than a dozen member nations, the SKA is composed of two radio telescopes (SKA1-LOW and SKA1-MID) and a Headquarters facility. The SKA is now moving toward the start of the procurement phase and construction activities and is about to become a reality on the ground. Here, we focus on the SKA1-LOW and present the architectural highlights of what will be the most sensitive aperture array telescope on the earth, operating between 50 and 350 MHz.
Aniket Hendre, Bassem Alachkar, Paul Boven, Songlin Chen, Hannah Collingwood, John Davis, Peter Dewdney, David Gozzard, Keith Grainge, Charles Gravestock, Yichen Guo, David Hindley, Maria Grazia Labate, Sascha Schediwy, Simon Stobie, Luca Stringhetti, Gerhard Swart, Bo Wang, Lijun Wang, Mark Waterson, Richard Whitaker, Althea Wilkinson
The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is a next-generation radio astronomy facility that will revolutionize our understanding of the Universe and the laws of fundamental physics. To achieve the intended objectives, it needs a stable reference frequency and accurate timing signals at each digitizer. These references are used for digitizing astronomical signals received from the receptors. The stability and accuracy of these references are highly important for coherently sampling the astronomical data. They are distributed using long-distance fibers that are susceptible to environmental perturbations, which makes meeting the requirements a challenge. The system overcomes these perturbations by actively stabilizing the noise during fiber transmission to achieve the required reference signal stability and sub-nanosecond level of timing accuracy. We collect together summary descriptions of the sub-systems designed for distributing the reference frequency and timing signals for each telescope, to provide an overview of the whole timing and frequency system for the SKA.
Bassem Alachkar, Peter Dewdney, Luca Stringhetti, Songlin Chen, Keith Grainge, Maria Grazia Labate, Aniket Hendre, Alice Pellegrini, Jayashree Roy, Gerhard Swart, Mark Waterson
KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Visibility, Quantization, Calibration, Interference (communication), Receptors, Signal attenuation, Analog electronics, Error analysis, Telescopes
We present the main performance aspects of the sensitivity and dynamic range of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). The sensitivity and dynamic range of a radio astronomy interferometer are affected by different sources of errors and noises. A general description of these effects is given, focusing on the direction-independent effects.
KEYWORDS: Receivers, Antennas, Finite element methods, Radio over Fiber, Wavelength division multiplexing, Temperature metrology, Optical fibers, Radio optics, Polarization, Transmitters
The signal reception chain is an essential element for achieving the square kilometer array-low (SKA-low) system requirements in terms of high sensitivity and dynamic range. The balance between gain, linearity, and low power consumption, as well as the cost, are fundamental parameters that influence the selection of the most suitable technology for SKA-low. Further factors, such as low self-generated radio frequency (RF) interference, high reliability, robustness under extreme environment, and last but not least, the distance between the antennas and the acquisition systems, have impacts on the selection for both architecture and receiver system design. The selected technology for the SKA-low RF signal transportation is RF-over-fiber systems, where the preamplified RF signal picked up by the antennas is carried via analogue modulation over optical fiber. The rationales behind the selection are reported, along with descriptions on the development of the receiver prototypes. The prototypes were deployed and installed on the demonstrator arrays at the selected SKA-low site in Western Australian. Particular attention has been put on the thermal characterization of the receiver system under the actual operating temperature on site, especially when both transmitting part and the optical medium are subjected to external ambient temperature variations. Performance issues encountered in the demonstrator arrays are also discussed along with some proposals for future activities.
Giulia Macario, Giuseppe Pupillo, Gianni Bernardi, Pietro Bolli, Paola Di Ninni, Giovanni Comoretto, Andrea Mattana, Jader Monari, Federico Perini, Marco Schiaffino, Marcin Sokolowski, Randall Wayth, Jess Broderick, Mark Waterson, Maria Grazia Labate, Riccardo Chiello, Alessio Magro, Tom Booler, Andrew McPhail, Dave Minchin, Raunaq Bhushan
The low frequency component of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA1-Low) will be an aperture phased array located at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory (MRO) site in Western Australia. It will be composed of 512 stations, each consisting of 256 log-periodic dual-polarized antennas, and will operate in the low frequency range (50 to 350 MHz) of the SKA bandwidth. The Aperture Array Verification System 2 (AAVS2), operational since late 2019, is the last full-size engineering prototype station deployed at the MRO site before the start of the SKA1-Low construction phase. The aim of this paper is to characterize the station performance through commissioning observations at six different frequencies (55, 70, 110, 160, 230, and 320 MHz) collected during its first year of activities. We describe the calibration procedure, present the resulting all-sky images and their analysis, and discuss the station calibratability and system stability. Using the difference imaging method, we also derive estimates of the SKA1-Low sensitivity for the same frequencies and compare them with those obtained through electromagnetic simulations across the entire telescope bandwidth, finding good agreement (within 13%). Moreover, our estimates exceed the SKA1-Low requirements at all considered frequencies by up to a factor of ∼2.3. Our results are very promising and allow for an initial validation of the AAVS2 prototype station performance, which is an important step toward the coming SKA1-Low telescope construction and science.
We present the Engineering Development Array 2, which is one of two instruments built as a second generation prototype station for the future Square Kilometre Low-Frequency Array. The array is comprised of 256 dual-polarization dipole antennas that can work as a phased array or as a standalone interferometer. We describe the design of the array and the details of design changes from previous generation instruments, as well as the motivation for the changes. Using the array as an imaging interferometer, we measure the sensitivity of the array at five frequencies ranging from 70 to 320 MHz.
The Square Kilometre Array telescope at low-frequency (SKA-Low) will be a phased array telescope supporting a wide range of science cases covering the frequency band 50 - 350 MHz, while at the same time asking for high sensitivity and excellent characteristics. These extremely challenging requirements resulted in a design using 512 groups of 256 log periodic dual polarized antennas each (where each group is called “station”), for a total of 131072 antennas. The 512 stations are randomly distributed mostly within a dense area around the centre of the SKA-Low, and then in 3 arms having 16 station clusters each. In preparation for the SKA Phase 1 (SKA1) System Critical Design Review (CDR), prototype stations were deployed at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory (MRO) site (Western Australia) near the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) radio telescope. The project involved multiple parties in an International collaboration building and testing different prototypes of the SKA1-Low station near the actual site. This resulted in both organisational and logistic challenges typical of a deployment of the actual telescope. The test set-up involved a phased build-up of the complex station of log-periodic antennas, by starting from the deployment of 48 antennas and related station signal processing (called AAVS1.5, where AAVS stands for Aperture Array Verification System), followed by expansion to a full station (AAVS2.0). As reference a station with dipole antennas EDA2 (EDA: Engineering Development Array) was deployed. This test set-up was used for an extensive test and evaluation programme. All test antenna configurations were simulated in detail by electromagnetic (EM) models, and the prediction of the models was further verified by appropriate tests with a drone-based radio frequency source. Astronomical observations on Sun and galaxy transit were performed with calibrated stations of both EDA2, AAVS1.5 and AAVS2.0. All 3 configurations were calibrated. EM modelling and calibration results for the full station AAVS2.0 and EM verification for the AAVS1.5 station are presented. The comparisons between the behaviour of the log-periodic antennas and the dipoles have advanced our understanding the calibration quality and the technological maturity of the future SKA1-Low array.
KEYWORDS: Signal processing, Telescopes, Optical instrument design, Antennas, Space telescopes, Calibration, Systems modeling, Data processing, Systems engineering, Interfaces
The SKA1-LOW radio telescope will be a low-frequency (50-350 MHz) aperture array located in Western Australia. Its scientific objectives will prioritize studies of the Epoch of Reionization and pulsar physics. Development of the telescope has been allocated to consortia responsible for the aperture array front end, timing distribution, signal and data transport, correlation and beamforming signal processors, infrastructure, monitor and control systems, and science data processing. This paper will describe the system architectural design and key performance parameters of the telescope and summarize the high-level sub-system designs of the consortia.
The Gemini South Adaptive Optics Imager (GSAOI) to be used with the Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics (MCAO) system at Gemini South is currently in the final stages of assembly and testing. GSAOI uses a suite of 26 different filters, made from both BK7 and Fused Silica substrates. These filters, located in a non-collimated beam, work as active optical elements.
The optical design was undertaken to ensure that both the filter substrates both focused longitudinally at the same point. During the testing of the instrument it was found that longitudinal focus was filter dependant. The methods used to investigate this are outlined in the paper. These investigations identified several possible causes for the focal shift including substrate material properties in cryogenic conditions and small amounts of residual filter power.
The Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics (RSAA) of the Australian National University (ANU) at Mt Stromlo Observatory is developing a wide-field Cassegrain Imager for the new 1.3m SkyMapper Survey Telescope under construction for Siding Spring Observatory, NSW, Australia. The Imager features a fast-readout, low-noise 268 Million pixel CCD mosaic that provides a 5.7 square degree field of view. Given the close relative sizes of the telescope and Imager, the work is proceeding in close collaboration with the telescope's manufacturer, Electro Optics Systems Pty Ltd (Canberra, Australia).
The design of the SkyMapper Imager focal plane is based on E2V (Chelmsford, UK) deep depletion CCDs. These devices have 2048 x 4096 15 micron pixels, and provide a 91% filling factor in our mosaic configuration of 4 x 8 chips. In addition, the devices have excellent quantum efficiency from 300nm-950nm, near perfect cosmetics, and low-read noise, making them well suited to the all-sky ultraviolet through near-IR Southern Sky Survey to be conducted by the telescope.
The array will be controlled using modified versions of the new IOTA controllers being developed for Pan-STARRS by Onaka and Tonry et al. These controllers provide a cost effective, low-volume, high speed solution for our detector read-out requirements. The system will have an integrated 6-filter exchanger, and Shack-Hartmann optics, and will be cooled by closed-cycle helium coolers.
This paper will present the specifications, and opto-mechanical and detector control design of the SkyMapper Imager, including the test results of the detector characterisation and manufacturing progress.
Large-area near-infrared focal-plane detector arrays constructed from one and four Rockwell Science Center HAWAII-
2RG HgCdTe detectors have been characterized for use in the NIFS and GSAOI instruments recently developed for the
Gemini telescopes by the Australian National University. We present details of the detector characterization and
compare the performance of five distinct devices with respect to read noise, dark current, and stability in systems based
on ARC/SDSU Gen-3 controllers. Advanced operating modes of the H2RG were implemented including enhanced
clocking and independent On-Detector Guide Windows for GSAOI. Detector performance using these features and the
impact of multiple guide-window reads on long integrations are explored. We also discuss measurement of intra-pixel
coupling and its impact on pixel-well capacity, gain, and image quality for these devices.
The Institute for Astronomy has developed and recently installed a high-resolution cross-dispersed echelle spectrograph for use at one of the coudé foci of the AEOS 3.7-meter telescope, operated by the Air Force Space Command atop Mt. Haleakala on the island of Maui. The spectrograph features an optical arm for the wavelength range 0.5 - 1.0 μm and an infrared arm for the range 1.0 - 2.5 μm. We review the spectrograph design and present commissioning results obtained with both the visible and infrared arms. Both channels use a white-pupil collimator design to maximize grating efficiency and to limit the size of the camera optics. The visible arm of the spectrograph uses deep-depletion CCDs optimized for operation near 1.0 μm. The infrared detector is a 2048 x 2048 HgCdTe array (HAWAII-2) that has been developed by the Rockwell Science Center for this project. Both channels are equipped with slit-viewing cameras for object acquisition and control of a fast guiding tip-tilt mirror located at a pupil image in the spectrograph fore optics.
The IFA and collaborators are embarking on a project to develop a 4-telescope synoptic survey instrument. While somewhat smaller than the 6.5m class telescope envisaged by the decadal review in their proposal for a LSST, this facility will nonetheless be able to accomplish many of the LSST science goals. In this paper we will describe the motivation for a 'distributed aperture' approach for the LSST, the current concept for Pan-STARRS -- a pilot project for the LSST proper -- and its performance goals and science reach. We will also discuss how the facility may be expanded.
We are developing a high-resolution cross-dispersed echelle spectrograph for installation at one of the coude foci of the new AEOS 3.67 meter telescope, operated by the Air Force Space Command on Haleakala, Maui, Hawaii. The spectrograph will consist of two major subsystems: an optical arm for the wavelength range 0.5-1.0 micrometers and an IR arm for the range 1.0-2.5 micrometers . Both arms of the spectrograph use a white- pupil collimator design to maximize grating efficiency and to limit the size of the camera optics. The optical arm of the spectrograph will use deep-depletion CCDs optimized for operation near 1.0 micrometers . The IR detector will be a 2048 by 2048 HgCdTe array that has bene developed by the Rockwell Science Center for this project. Both the optical and IR arms of the spectrograph will be equipped with slit-viewing cameras for object acquisition and control of a fast guiding tip-tilt mirror located in a pupil image in the spectrograph fore optics.
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