A number of process steps that build on one another are required to manufacture optical components from glass. The polishing steps are the most time-consuming and therefore cost-intensive parts of the process chain. Low removal rates and the depth of the Sub Surface Damage (SSD) to be removed contribute to this. An alternative for the complete removal of the SSD-penetrated material using contactless polishing methods such as Ion Beam Figuring (IBF) is the healing of the SSD. Due to the induced energy during laser-polishing, the material is remelted at the defects and the SSD are closed. However, laser-polishing is also associated with disadvantages in terms of shape accuracy and surface quality. The project HyoptO is therefore devoted to the development of a hybrid-process-chain consisting of laser processing and conventional polishing. It is expected that the healing times of the SSD can significantly reduce the process times in the subsequent polishing steps. However, there are a few questions to be answered regarding the economic use of the hybrid-process-chain. These include:
The developed concept represents a universally applicable clamping system designed to fit in any measuring machine with any measuring principle. The design ensures that, as long as the lens remains clamped, the measurement results are reproducible. Form errors due to tension remain constant across all measuring and processing steps. The version presented in this paper was developed especially for small lenses in the diameter range up to 40 mm. On the one hand, the design allows for fast measurement of loose lenses. On the other hand, the device can also be used for measurement comparisons, since lenses can also be mounted permanently. In the following, the concept and first results of measurement tests are presented.
The continuing trend towards lightweight construction and the associated machining rates of up to 95 % lead to an increased use of high-performance materials. The ever growing demands on the strength and quality of components and the associated use of materials which are hard to machine require the further development of new, economical machining techniques. In ultrasonic-assisted machining, an additional high-frequency vibration is superimposed on the conventional machining process. The vibration of the tool is usually excited axially or longitudinally to the workpiece, i.e. vertical to the cutting direction. An additional vibration overlay around the rotation axis (torsional) of the tool is also possible. This generates a vibration overlay in the cutting direction. The vibration initiation causes vibration amplitudes in the range of a few micrometers at the tool cutting edge. This leads in turn to a high-frequency change in the cutting speed or feed rate. Overall, an additional torsional vibration overlap can further reduce cutting forces, increase tool life and improve workpiece quality. In order for a grinding tool to generate a torsional vibration, a special tool was required that had to be designed by simulation. The formation of a torsional vibration was achieved by helical slots in the sonotrode. Depending on the angle of rotation and the length of the slots, a part of the axial vibration is converted into a torsional vibration by an axial excitation of the sonotrode. The aim in designing the slots was to achieve the highest possible vibration amplitude. Following the simulation, the slots were inserted into the tool in the corresponding optimum geometric position. Afterwards, the specially designed grinding tool was validated by machining the brittle-hard glass-ceramic material Zerodur. The first test results with the torsionally vibrating tool are presented in the following.
Zero point clamping systems are an integral part of the manufacturing industry. They have only yet to find their way into the optical industry. This article compares the hydraulic expansion holder, a clamping system currently used in the optical industry with a zero-point clamping system. The achievable accuracies of both systems are compared over several measurement series. In addition, the process capability evaluation is used for the comparison. Finally, the results are summarized to provide every researcher and practitioner with a foundation for assessing whether zero point clamping systems meet the requirements for the use in optical manufacturing.
Chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) of optical glasses is widespread and forms the basis for many high-precision polishing processes. The pads, slurries and glass materials used in polishing have many different properties. The effects of these properties on the process results are often unknown. The right choice and combination is therefore often a challenge.
By means of a plan processing of N-BK7 and SF56 samples by a plan-polishing process, the influence on the process results, material removal rate (MRR), micro roughness and cleanliness caused by slurry and polishing pad is shown. It turns out that the type of polish pad has the biggest impact on the results. The easy-to-process material N-BK7 shows only little influence by the type of slurry used. The more challenging SF56, however, shows significant effects, especially in the area of the resulting micro roughness and the appearance of surface damages like orange peel. Especially the use of Auerpol® PZ500 shows clear advantages here.
For a selection of three out of nine polishing pads, the effect of density variation of the slurry was also investigated. Lower particle concentrations lead to lower material removal rates. This applies to both materials. The more sensitive SF56 shows a reduction in micro roughness by the use of a less dense slurry.
The correct selection of the polishing pad has a positive effect on the material removal rate and/or the micro roughness in all tested materials. An adaptation of the type and concentration of the slurry is especially important for more sensitive materials and in combination with the right polishing pad.
In view of the development towards special materials and small lot sizes, the targeted and correct selection of polishing slurries and pads becomes more and more important. The information required for this purpose on the behavior of the pads and slurries available on the market must therefore first be determined in a targeted manner and clearly presented.
Subsurface Damages (SSDs) can cause a wide variety of defects to optical lenses and other components. In addition to the adhesion and quality of coatings, the mechanical stability, the transmission quality and the laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT) of the products, is also affected. It is, therefore, attempted to get components as SSD-free as possible at the end of the production chain. Already during the individual production steps, it is important to know the depth of the SSDs in order to remove them in the following manufacturing steps. To design the manufacturing processes efficiently and avoid damage, it is important to be able to measure the depth and characteristics of SSDs as precisely as possible.
There are a several approaches and methods to determine SSDs known in literature. However, many of them inevitably lead to the destruction of the workpiece. Although others are non-destructive, but very complex in design and/or associated with large investments. Likewise, only a few are suitable for determining SSDs on ground rough surfaces.
Filled-Up Miicroscopy (FUM) is an alternative approach to approximating the depth of SSDs, even on rough surfaces without destroying them. At a first glance at the method, the procedure is described in detail and all necessary steps of preparing the samples are shown. A first comparison with the known Ball Dimpling Method confirms the functionality of the concept.
The effects, the extent and the importance of workpiece deformations, particularly lenses, caused by the weight of the workpiece itself, were examined in a previous paper1 . The considered deformations are in the single-digit to two-digit nanometer range. The investigation was carried out by FEM calculations. The conclusion of the previous aper was that a full-surface support of a workpiece in the processing of one surface presumably produces the best results. Furthermore, it was found that if the second functional surface is not to be touched in the process, a full contact lens mounting on its circumference is advisable. An alternative method for fixing precision lenses is therefore desirable. This can be accomplished in two steps. As a first step, the lens must be gripped at its periphery so that none of the optically functional surfaces of the lens is compromised. However, the complete circumference has to be fixated gaplessly because a punctual fixation has the disadvantage of deforming the lens surface asymmetrically. As a second step, the freely hanging lens surface should be supported to minimize deformation. An approach had to be found that supports the surface like a solid bearing but at the same time does not touch it. Therefore, the usage of an incompressible fluid as a hydrostatic bearing for full-surface support is pursued. For this purpose, the bottom side of the lens has to be stored on water. The results of the FEM simulation showed that with a fluid bearing the resulting deformations can be drastically reduced in comparison to a freely hanging surface. Furthermore, under the right conditions, a resulting deformation comparable to a full surface solid support can be achieved. The content of this paper is a test series under laboratory conditions for a first validation of the theoretical results. Therefore, a prototype model to test a lens fixation with a fluid bearing was developed and manufactured. The resulting deformations were measured with an interferometer and the effects are discussed.
The industrial production of components for applications in the area of precision optics has a long-standing tradition in Germany. As in almost all branches of industry, the external circumstances, processes and products have changed over time. Large lots are becoming less frequent and the demand for special components is growing. In order to meet these requirements, it is necessary to adapt the production processes quickly and flexibly. In the field of chemo-mechanical polishing (CMP), this means that in addition to the process parameters such as speed, pressure and feed, the task-specific adaptation of suspension and polishing pad carriers gain in importance. Along with these changes, it is becoming increasingly important to compare and evaluate the properties of the various polishing suspensions. The procedures according to DIN 58750-3 and DIN 58750-4 are suitable for this purpose. Due to the clearly defined procedures and the constant boundary conditions, different suspensions can be compared and evaluated.
The study presented here shows that this method can also lead to misinterpretations. Known relationships, such as the influence of the polishing pad, the concentration of the suspension and the influence of the processed materials play an important role. An extension of the procedure of DIN 58750-3 for the test of a polishing agent can help in a task-specific characterization of polishing slurries.
In this publication the effects, the extent and the importance of the deformation of a workpiece, in particular of lenses, caused by its own weight, before and during the manufacturing process in precision optics are examined. Since the deformations move in the single-digit to two-digit nanometer range, the investigation is carried out in a first step with FEM calculations. This has the advantage that current situations can be quickly interpreted and improved, without having to carry out time-consuming and cost-intensive experiments from the outset. A major part of the work is therefore the investigation of current workpiece holder and clamping situations in optics manufacturing.
The present work concentrates exclusively on the theoretical calculation of the deformations occurring in various clamping situations, which are traced back to reality.
Ansys Workbench is used as a tool for the calculations. The test series under laboratory conditions for the validation of the theoretical results will be part of further work.
In vibration assisted machining, an additional high-frequency oscillation is superimposed on the kinematics of the conventional machining process. This generates oscillations on the cutting edge in the range of a few micrometers, thereby causing a high-frequency change in the cutting speed or the feed. Consequently, a reduction of cutting forces, an increase of the tool life as well as an improvement of the workpiece quality can be achieved. In milling and grinding it has been shown that these effects are already partially present in the case of a vibration excitation in axial direction relative to the workpiece, which is perpendicular to the cutting direction. Further improvements of the process results can be achieved by superimposing a vibration in cutting direction and thus modifying the cutting speed at high frequency.
The presented work shows the design of an ultrasonic actuator that enables vibration-assisted milling and grinding with ultrasonically modulated cutting speed. The actuator system superimposes a longitudinal torsional ultrasonic oscillation to the milling or grinding tool. It uses a bolt clamped Langevin transducer and a helically slotted horn, which degenerates the longitudinal vibration into a combined longitudinal torsional (L-T) vibration at the output surface. A finite element analysis is used to determine the vibration resonance frequency and mode shapes to maximize the torsional output. Afterwards, the simulation has been experimentally validated.
By adaption and coordination of successive process steps the efficiency of producing optics can be improved. In the beginning of this investigation, the focus is on two crucial process steps of the optical manufacturing process.
First, there is the optical and mechanical design of the optical part and system. In this context, it is important to consider what modifications compared to the current standard design are possible respectively useful. Thus, the modifications will only concentrate on parts of the optic that do not interfere with the optical functionality. Furthermore in this part of the study the main aspect is the clamping situation of the optical part in a holder or an optical system. It will be discussed, whether it is useful to add special clamping surfaces respectively a clamping flange in contrast to the standard design. The faultless functioning of the optics has always first priority.
Second, the manufacturing process itself has a great number of single steps. Therefore, a main part of the research is the investigation of current clamping situations in optics manufacturing, with prospect to improve them in order to work perfectly with the design modifications, as mentioned above. This part of the investigation focuses on the clamping system for the lens on each machine necessary for manufacturing.
In the scope of this paper the authors want to summarize characteristics and deficits of current clamping systems and workpiece mounts and give a prospect of the following course of action.
The most important part in manufacturing precision optics is a reliable measurement procedure which provides results a few times more accurate than the quality to be produced. In general two specific values are important, the repeatability of several measurements which are done in a row and the absolute accuracy which is mostly defined by the systematical error of the measurement device. The repeatability can be improved relatively simple, by increasing the number of measurements and a following averaging step. To increase the absolute accuracy of a measurement device in the field of precision optics is far more challenging.
In this paper several interferometer absolute testing methods to measure flat surfaces are compared. The main objective was to name a value for the achievable accuracy. Therefor four different methods were analyzed: 1. The three flat test, a method which is already used several decades to determine the quality of a flat surface. As a result, two absolute measured profiles, horizontal and vertical, can be calculated.
2. The multi rotation test, an extension of the classical three flat test. The big advantage of this method is a fully three dimensional map of the systematical error.
3. The systematical error calculated by the SSI-A. Hereby several subapertures are measured over the whole surface. The redundant information’s of the overlapping regions can be used to calculate the systematical error of the system.
4. The rotation of the transmission flat relatively to the interferometer. Thereby the rotation unsymmetrical errors can be calculated and subtracted.
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