With a rising trend to use optical fiber in both short-reach and long-haul network applications, it has become necessary to detect faults with high spatial resolution, sensitivity, and dynamic range in industry. Unfortunately, the most widely used diagnostic technique, optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR), has an inherent trade-off between the above mentioned figures of merit. Consequently, traditional OTDR systems can either be used in short-reach applications with high spatial resolution or long-haul applications with high dynamic range. Both OTDR and optical frequency-domain reflectometry systems have been proposed in the past which can arguably close the gap between the two extremes, but they also have a trade-off with the cost, form-factor, and complexity. Recently, researchers have demonstrated an input/output (I/O) interface integrated OTDR (iOTDR), which uses digital I/O ports to perform OTDR measurements with high spatial and voltage resolution. The iOTDR eliminates the necessity of using high-end analog-to-digital converters and demonstrates its potential to be fully integrated in an optical switch with minimum hardware modification. Additionally, the iOTDR is also reconfigurable and software-defined, making it a power- and resource-efficient solution. Thus, it is especially attractive for short-distance communication links, such as those in a datacenter, where computational resources are limited. This manuscript expands upon the advantages brought upon by the iOTDR to propose and demonstrate a new versatile iOTDR that can achieve high spatial resolution, sensitivity, and dynamic range for both short-reach and long-haul networks thanks to its highly reconfigurable design.
Optical frequency-domain reflectometry and frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW)-based sensing technologies, such as LiDAR and distributed fiber sensors, fundamentally rely on the performance of frequency-swept laser sources. Specifically, frequency-sweep linearity, which determines the level of measurement distortion, is of paramount importance. Sweep-velocity-locked semiconductor lasers (SVLLs) controlled via phase-locked loops (PLLs) have been studied for many FMCW applications owing to its simplicity, low cost, and low power consumption. We demonstrate an alternative, self-adaptive laser control system that generates an optimized predistortion curve through PLL iterations. The described self-adaptive algorithm was successfully implemented in a digital circuit. The results show that the phase error of the SVLL improved by around 1 order of magnitude relative to the one without using this method, demonstrating that this self-adaptive algorithm is a viable method of linearizing the output of frequency-swept laser sources.
Distributed optical fiber sensors are increasingly utilized method of distributed strain and temperature sensing, and the swept laser source plays an significant role in these applications. However, there is dynamic frequency-noise as the laser sweeping. In this paper, we proposed and experimentally demonstrated a real-time in-situ phase noise detecting method in a field programmable gate array (FPGA) chip, which permits accurate and insightful investigation of laser stability. This method takes only 1 clock cycle to capture the phase noise.
Distributed optical fiber sensors are an increasingly utilized method of gathering distributed strain and temperature data. However, the large amount of data they generate present a challenge that limits their use in real-time, in-situ applications. This letter describes a parallel and pipelined computing architecture that accelerates the signal-processing speed of sub-terahertz fiber sensor (sub-THz-fs) arrays, maintaining high spatial resolution while allowing for expanded use for real-time sensing and control applications. The computing architecture described was successfully implemented in a field programmable gate array (FPGA) chip. The signal processing for the entire array takes only 12 system clock cycles. In addition, this design removes the necessity of storing any raw or intermediate data.
Temperature monitoring and regulation is a critical aspect of data center administration. Currently, conventional discrete transistor-based thermal sensing systems are widely used for this purpose, which requires a discrete device for each temperature measurement in the special domain. This leads to an increase in both complexity and cost as the data center grows in scale. This manuscript describes a real-time multiplexed optical fiber thermal sensing system for data center applications which simultaneously measures thousands of discrete points along the length of the fiber under test. This system allows for real-time thermal monitoring of several hundred servers with a spatial resolution of 1 cm, a temperature resolution of <1 °C, and a system update rate of 1 Hz. Temperature inside of individual servers and the ambient room temperature outside the racks can be simultaneously monitored in real time using a single optical fiber probe. To investigate this concept, a pilot experiment is presented which monitored the dynamic server temperature distribution using the proposed fiber sensing system. Temperature data recorded using built-in thermal sensors within the CPU of the server under test were simultaneously recorded and compared to measurements made. In order to induce a temperature change within the server, a computationally intensive task was undertaken during temperature testing. Both methods of temperature measurement demonstrated similar trends, indicating that the proposed multiplexed optical fiber-based system has substantial potential as a scalable method of distributed data center temperature monitoring.
Sub-terahertz range fiber sensors have been well investigated for distributed stain sensing applications. Due to the use to sub-millimeter range structures, high accuracy measurement using relative small interrogation bandwidth (~ 100 GHz) can be achieved. The interrogation system is based on optical frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR), where the key component is the high-linear frequency sweep laser source. Previously the external cavity lasers have been employed as the frequency sweep sources. The external cavity lasers are capable to sweep over large interrogation bandwidth (>3 THz). However, compared with the 100 GHz resonation period of sub-terahertz range fiber sensors with a pitch length of 1mm, this broad sweep bandwidth is unnecessary. Besides, the external cavity lasers require the use of moving mechanical components, which limits the system update rate and increases the system complexity. This paper presents a design of a high linear sweep laser source suitable for sub-terahertz range fiber sensors. A distributed feedback laser is employed as the frequency sweep source based on the injection current modulation technique, and the sweep velocity is locked at a constant value (14.2 GHz/ms) using a semi-digital feedback control system. A high-linear sweep bandwidth of 117.69 GHz with a system update rate of 50 Hz has been demonstrated. In addition, a dynamic experiment was conducted to demonstrate the system distributed strain sensing capability. The proposed system holds the potential for dynamic structural health monitoring.
A field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-controlled sweep velocity-locked laser pulse generator (SV-LLPG) design based on an all-digital phase-locked loop (ADPLL) is proposed. A distributed feedback laser with modulated injection current was used as a swept-frequency laser source. An open-loop predistortion modulation waveform was calibrated using a feedback iteration method to initially improve frequency sweep linearity. An ADPLL control system was then implemented using an FPGA to lock the output of a Mach–Zehnder interferometer that was directly proportional to laser sweep velocity to an on-board system clock. Using this system, linearly chirped laser pulses with a sweep bandwidth of 111.16 GHz were demonstrated. Further testing evaluating the sensing utility of the system was conducted. In this test, the SV-LLPG served as the swept laser source of an optical frequency-domain reflectometry system used to interrogate a subterahertz range fiber structure (sub-THz-FS) array. A static strain test was then conducted and linear sensor results were observed.
This paper presents a rapid signal processing approach for OCMI system, which could significantly reduce the complexity of computations while maintaining decent performances. A direct phase demodulator can be pre-calibrated and applied to extract the absolute phase change to target reflectors at different locations, where the strain change can be found distributedly. Theoretical framework was conducted and to demo the concept, a strain test was performed with ultra-weak reflectors (-70 dB) under the OCMI system. The proposed method was applied to extract the distributed stain change along the fiber under test. Compared with the previous proposed method, no FIR filters and Fourier transform are involved. This algorithm holds the potential suitable for dynamic OCMI distributed sensing system.
We report a two-axis fiber inclinometer fabricated using an ultraweak terahertz-range fiber Bragg grating. Three sensing grating structures were inscribed along a single-mode optical fiber using a femtosecond laser, bound together into a sensing array using thermoformed plastic, and fixed to a two-axis rotational stage. Inclination tests were performed in which the fiber was deflected from 0 to 1.7 deg. These tests were repeated at eight azimuthal angles in increments of 45 deg (from 0 to 315 deg). The standard deviation of the largest inclination angle error was 0.048 deg and the stability of the inclination angle was 0.030 deg.
This paper summarizes the recent progress of improving optical fiber sensor interrogation technique by introducing
acitve fiber loop into demodulation system. Various types of sensors including multimode interferometer chemical vapor
sensor and etc are implemented in the active fiber loop interrogation system. The experiments show an improved signal
to noise ratio by active fiber loop.
The innovative coaxial cable Bragg grating (CCBG) sensor not only achieves the attractive attributes of high resolution,
remote operation and multiplexing capability, but also has the advantages of large strain capability and robustness to
survive harsh conditions, suitable for structural health monitoring (SHM). The Q-factor of the resonances in CCBG is
studied in this paper by coupled mode theory (CMT), to obtain a better understanding of the device physics. The
relationships between geometrical parameters and the Q-factor are investigated quantitatively and closed-from
expressions are obtained. Design guidelines are developed to improve the Q-factor and consequently improve the senor
sensitivity and accuracy.
In this paper, a new coaxial cable Bragg grating (CCBG) is developed as a strain sensor and the sensor's capacity for
large range strain measurement in structural health monitoring (SHM) is demonstrated for the first time. The sensor
device is comprised of regularly spaced periodic discontinuities along a coaxial cable. The discontinuities are fabricated
using a computer numerical controlled (CNC) machine to drill holes in the cable. Each discontinuity generates a weak
reflection to the electromagnetic wave propagating inside the cable. Superposition of these weak reflections produces a
strong reflection at discrete frequencies that can be explained by Bragg grating theory. By monitoring the resonant
frequency shift of the sensor's reflection or transmission spectra, strain measurement sensitivity of 20με and a dynamic
range of 50000με (5%) were demonstrated for axial strain measurements. The experimental results show that the CCBG
sensors perform well for large strain measurement needed in structural health monitoring (SHM).
This paper reports a long-period fiber gratings(LPFG) fabricated on a double-clad fiber (DCF) by the
CO2
laser point-by-point technique. The LPFG is tested by measuring temperature and refractive
index (RI) of different liquids. The results show that the LPFG inscribed on the DCF has no
measurable sensitivity to external RI but has a high sensitivity for temperature. The measured
temperature sensitivity is ~0.11 nm/oC, about 10 times higher than that of conventional FBGs. Such
LPFGs can be used as a modulator in fiber lasers or temperature/strain sensors in applications where
the surrounding RI is prone to variation, such as simultaneous measurement of the temperature and
RI of chemical reactions.
Long-period fiber gratings have been used for refractive index measurements under different conditions. Normally, this
kind of sensor is based on measuring resonance wavelength shift with respect to different refractive index environments.
As high order mode long period fiber gratings are attracting more attention, a new methodology based on intensity
measurement of turning points is introduced, which involves simple experiment setup and straightforward demodulation
process compared with wavelength shift based method. By using CO2 laser point by point irradiation method, high order
mode gratings working at turning point can be easily fabricated. This type of grating has a very high sensitive response
to surrounding refractive index, which can be used in chemical, medical and bio applications. In this paper, high
sensitive refractive index sensor is demonstrated based on high order mode using intensity measurement. Phase match
curve and couple mode theory are combined to analyze the intensity response to refractive index change at turning point
of LPFG. This sensor is also demonstrated as an effective refractive index based glucose sensor with a range from 0 to
40 mM concentration of glucose solution, which can fulfill the medical requirement.
We demonstrate a compact all-fiber probe for a common path optical coherence tomography (CPOCT) system.
By forming a focusing lens directly on the tip of an optical fiber, a compact fiber probe could be constructed. The
microlens is produced by forming a droplet with UV-curing adhesive on the cleaved tip of multimode fiber. It fulfills
two functions acting as both the reference plane and the imaging lens. To simultaneously achieve a relative long working
distance and a good lateral resolution, we employed a large core size multimode fiber. A working distance of 280μm,
and a transverse resolution of 14μm were achieved with the implemented MMF lensed fiber. The performance of the
CPOCT system with the proposed MMF lensed fiber is presented by showing the OCT images of an onion tissue as
biological sample.
We report a new method to measure the refractive index change in optical fiber core induced by femtosecond (fs)laser exposure. An in-line Fabry-Perot interferometer, serving as the measurement platform, is constructed on a commercial single-mode optical fiber by one-step femtosecond (fs) laser fabrication. A positive refractive index change is observed and measured accurately as the laser pulse energy surpasses the ablation threshold.
Long period fiber grating (LPFG) has been attracted much attention for use in optical sensing applications and optical
communication systems. Compared with a regular LPFG, the phase shift long period fiber grating (PS-LPFG) has shown
certain unique advantages such as higher sensitivity and potentials for simultaneous measurements of multiple
parameters. This paper presents the fabrication and characterization of PS-LPFG by CO2 laser point-by-point
irradiations. We emphasis on the difference between LPFG and PS-LPFG as optical sensors for measurement of strain,
temperature and refractive index.
We demonstrate experimentally the light coupling between two types of optical fiber devices, including the long period
fiber gratings (LPFGs) and fiber tapers. Optical power transfer is achieved through evanescent field coupling between
the cladding modes. The output spectra from the LPFG couplers exhibit band-pass/band-rejection pattern, which could
be used as add/drop filters. The output spectra from the fiber taper couplers show an interference pattern similar to a
Mach-Zehnder interferometer. By fixing the fiber devices in a capillary glass tube, we demonstrated a miniaturized
coupler for displacement sensing.
This paper summarizes our recent research progresses in developing optical fiber harsh
environment sensors for various high temperature harsh environment sensing applications
such as monitoring of the operating conditions in a coal-fired power plant and in-situ
detection of key gas components in coal-derived syngas. The sensors described in this paper
include a miniaturized inline fiber Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) fabricated by one-step fs
laser micromachining, a long period fiber grating (LPFG) and a fiber inline core-cladding
mode interferometer (CMMI) fabricated by controlled CO2 laser irradiations. Their operating
principles, fabrication methods, and applications for measurement of various physical and
chemical parameters in a high temperature and high pressure coexisting harsh environment
are presented.
There is a range of ways to couple light in a single mode fiber (SMF) from core mode to cladding modes, which can be
applied in some fiber sensors. Recently, a very simple method using CO2 laser irradiation is put forward. By coupling
core mode to cladding mode in the first irritation point and re-coupling in the second one, in-line Mach-Zehnder
interferometer (MFI) and Michelson interferometer(MI) sensors have be demonstrated.
To understand the mechanism underneath this coupling phenomenon, several parameters (laser power, laser lasting time,
etc) tests are investigated. With bigger laser power and longer lasting time, one can obtain higher mode coupling, which
is potential for greater sensitivity sensor. Combined with a long period fiber grating (LPFG), the cladding modes
promoted in fiber cladding are studied.
In some big power conditions, permanent deformation can be met on the irradiation points of the fiber. Although higher
loss is induced, there is also other advantage, such like high temperature stability. The sensitivity and stability of
temperature are discussed based on these sensors' configuration and mechanism. The experiences verify our laser
irritation sensors can survive in very high temperature. When coating with some gas absorption film such like zeolite
film, one reliable high sensitivity gas sensor is successfully demonstrated in low ppm vapor level.
Dense nanocrystalline copper-doped zirconia (CDZ, Cu:Zr=16:84) thin film was coated on the surface of a 125 μm-diameter
long-period fiber grating (LPFG) by a facile synthesis route involving polymeric precursor coating and
subsequent thermal treatments. The CDZ film had a uniform thickness of ~100 nm and grain size of 20 to 35 nm after a
brief annealing step at 700°C for 1 hour. This CDZ thin film coated LPFG (CDZ-LPFG) was evaluated at a high
temperature of 550°C for its change of resonant wavelength (λR) in response to the variation of carbon monoxide (CO) concentration in nitrogen (N2). The λR was found to shift toward longer wavelength when increasing the CO concentration. The CDZ-LPFG sensor response was found to be reproducible and reversible at low level CO
concentrations (<1,000 ppm) but became irreversible when the CO concentration was high (e.g. at 10,000 ppm). The
high temperature stability of the CDZ material in CO-containing atmospheres was studied to understand the limit of CO
measurement range.
This paper demonstrates the chemical sensing capability of a miniaturized fiber inline Fabry-Pérot sensor fabricated by
femtosecond laser. Its accessible cavity enables the device to measure the refractive index within the cavity. The
refractive index change introduced by changing the acetone solution concentration was experimentally detected with an
error less than 4.2×10-5.
Fiber inline core-cladding-mode interferometers (CCMI) fabricated by CO2 laser irradiations were demonstrated. CCMI
sensors operate based on the interference between the core mode and the cladding modes. Based on the way the
interferometer is configured, CCMI sensors can be categorized into two groups, namely the Mach-Zehnder
interferometer (MZI) type and the Michelson interferometer (MI) type. The MZI sensor works in transmission mode, i.e.,
the transmitted interference signal is detected. The MI sensor works in reflection mode, where the light passes the
interferometer twice and the reflected interference signal is detected. We conducted a temperature test and a refractive
index test to demonstrate their sensing capability.
In this study, a new zeolite thin film-coated long-period fiber grating (LPFG) sensor was developed and
evaluated for chemical vapor detection. The sensor was fabricated by growing nanoporous MFI-type zeolite (pore
size ~0.55nm) thin film on fiber grating using in situ hydrothermal crystallization method. The hydrothermal
synthesis process was controlled by continuously monitoring the LPFG transmission spectrum evolution, which
indicated the zeolite film formation and growth process. The zeolite-LPFG sensor was activated by calcination in air
to remove the structural directing agent from the zeolite pores and then demonstrated for sensitive detection of
chemical vapor in gas phases.
We report in this paper the fabrication of high performance thermal LPFGs by point-by-point CO2 laser irradiations.
These thermal LPFGs have shown much better temperature tolerance and promised applications in high temperature
harsh environments. The computer-controlled fabrication system with in situ signal monitoring capability is described.
The fabricated LPFGs survived high temperatures up to 800°C. Long term stability test at 550°C for 200 hours indicated
that thermal shock at a higher temperature could significantly reduce the drift.
Recently, we discovered that the nanoporous zeolite materials possess the unique combination of optical and
chemical properties suitable for developing highly sensitive chemical sensors. This paper summarizes our recent
work in developing such highly sensitive chemical sensors by functionally integrating zeolite thin films with optical
fiber devices. These include the zeolite Fabry-Perot interferometric sensor and the zeolite thin film-coated thermal
long period fiber grating sensor. Both types of sensors operate by monitoring the adsorption-induced optical
refractive index changes in the zeolite thin film. The sensors were tested using various organic chemicals with
different molecular sizes and in both vapor and liquid phases.
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