Recently there has been increased interest on the part of federal and state regulators to detect and quantify emissions of methane, an important greenhouse gas, from various parts of the oil and gas infrastructure including well pads and pipelines. Pressure and/or flow anomalies are typically used to detect leaks along natural gas pipelines, but are generally very insensitive and subject to false alarms. We have developed a system to detect and localize methane leaks along gas pipelines that is an order of magnitude more sensitive by combining tunable diode laser spectroscopy (TDLAS) with conventional sensor tube technology. This technique can potentially localize leaks along pipelines up to 100 km lengths with an accuracy of ±50 m or less. A sensor tube buried along the pipeline with a gas-permeable membrane collects leaking gas during a soak period. The leak plume within the tube is then carried to the nearest sensor node along the tube in a purge cycle. The time-to-detection is used to determine leak location. Multiple sensor nodes are situated along the pipeline to minimize the time to detection, and each node is composed of a short segment of hollow core fiber (HCF) into which leaking gas is transported quickly through a small pressure differential. The HCF sensing node is spliced to standard telecom solid core fiber which transports the laser light for spectroscopy to a remote interrogator. The interrogator is multiplexed across the sensor nodes to minimize equipment cost and complexity.
The increase in domestic natural gas production has brought attention to the environmental impacts of persistent gas leakages. The desire to identify fugitive gas emission, specifically for methane, presents new sensing challenges within the production and distribution supply chain. A spectroscopic gas sensing solution would ideally combine a long optical path length for high sensitivity and distributed detection over large areas. Specialty micro-structured fiber with a hollow core can exhibit a relatively low attenuation at mid-infrared wavelengths where methane has strong absorption lines. Methane diffusion into the hollow core is enabled by machining side-holes along the fiber length through ultrafast laser drilling methods. The complete system provides hundreds of meters of optical path for routing along well pads and pipelines while being interrogated by a single laser and detector. This work will present transmission and methane detection capabilities of mid-infrared photonic crystal fibers. Side-hole drilling techniques for methane diffusion will be highlighted as a means to convert hollow-core fibers into applicable gas sensors.
The technology for enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), in which fractures connecting deep underground wells are deliberately formed through high pressure stimulation for energy generation, is projected to enormously expand the available reserves of geothermal energy in the U.S. EGS could provide up to 100,000 MWe within the U.S. by the next 50 years. Pressure measurements, in particular, are important for determining the state of the fluid, i.e., liquid or steam, the fluid flow, and the effectiveness of the well stimulation. However, it has been especially difficult to accurately measure pressure at temperatures above ~200°C at a distance of 10 km below ground. MEMS technology has been employed for many years for extremely accurate pressure measurements through electrical readout of a MEMS fabricated resonator. By combining optical readout and drive at the end of a fiber optical cable with a MEMS resonator, it is possible to employ these highly accurate sensors within the harsh environment of a geothermal well. Sensor prototypes based on two beam and four beam resonator designs have been designed, fabricated and characterized for pressure response and accuracy. Resonant frequencies of the sensors vary between ~15 kHz and 90 kHz depending on sensor design, and laboratory measurements yielded sensitivities of frequency variation with external pressure of 0.9-2.2 Hz/psi. An opto-electronic feedback loop was designed and implemented for the field test. The sensors were packaged and deployed as part of a cable that was deployed at a geothermal well over the course of 2½ weeks. Error of the sensor versus the reference gage was 1.2% over the duration of the test. There is a high likelihood that this error is a result of hydrogen darkening of the fiber that is reducing the temperature of the resonator and, if corrected, could reduce the error to less than 0.01%.
KEYWORDS: Magnetism, Head, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Anisotropy, Integrated optics, Near field optics, Waveguides, Cladding, Scanning electron microscopy, Iron
Scaling the areal density, while maintaining a proper balance between media signal-to-noise,
thermal stability and writability will soon require an alternative recording technology. Heat
Assisted Magnetic Recording (HAMR) can achieve this balance by allowing high anisotropy
media to be written by heating the media during the writing process (e.g. by laser light) to
temporarily lower the anisotropy. Three major challenges of designing a HAMR head that tightly
focuses light and collocates it with the magnetic field are discussed: 1) Magnetic Field Delivery,
2)Optical Delivery, and 3) Integration of Magnetic & Optical Field Delivery Components.
Thousands of these HAMR heads were built into sliders and HGAs, and optical and scanning
electron micrograph images are shown. Scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM)
characterization of the HAMR head shows that the predicted ~λ/4 full-width half-maximum
(FWHM) spot size can be achieved using 488 nm light (124 nm was achieved). SNOM images
also show that wafer level fabricated apertures were able to effectively eliminate sidelobes from
the focused spot intensity profile. An MFM image of HAMR media shows that Non-HAMR
(laser power off) was not able to write transitions in the HAMR specific media even at very high
write currents, but transitions could be written using HAMR (laser power on), even at lower write
currents. A cross-track profile is shown for a fully integrated HAMR head where the magnetic
pole physical width is ~350 nm, but the written track is ~200nm, which demonstrates HAMR. A
HAMR optimization contour shows that there is an optimum write current and laser power and
that simply going to the highest write current and laser power does not lead to the best recording.
Lastly, some prospects for advancing HAMR are given and a few key problems to be solved are
mentioned.
Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR), also known as hybrid recording, is one of the technologies proposed for extending hard disk drive areal densities beyond a Tb/in2. Due to their planar nature and compatibility with existing hard disk drive head fabrication techniques, dielectric optical waveguides have been suggested as a means for delivering light directly to the recording medium or near field optical transducer. In this paper we present spin stand experimental results from a dielectric optical slab waveguide fabricated on an AlTiC slider.
We present a novel technique for the modeling of near field optical devices. The key features of this technique are the accuracy of the finite difference time domain method, the advantages of a scattered field formulation, and the direct use the complx permittivity of metals at the frequency of interest.
Although magneto-optic materials are often characterized and compared by misleading `figure of merit' (such as Kerr rotation), the Lissberger-Mansuripur figure of merit has many advantages. Using this figure of merit we can directly study, for example, the effect on the MO signal of Pb or Bi in nanolayered TbFeCo. No comparable figure of merit has been available for optimizing phase change materials in optical media. In this paper we show how the Lissberger- Mansuripur figure of merit can be extended to phase change materials, and we calculate its value for GeSbTe.
This course will introduce the theory of surface plasmons (SPs) from the standpoint of classical electrodynamics. The properties of SPs will be discussed. The variety of configurations and materials which support SPs will be explored. Techniques for excitation of SPs will be described. This course will also cover current and potential applications in which SPs play an integral part.
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