The organic sensor array program is investigating the application of small imaging sensors to support small unit operation teams and law enforcement personnel. Experiments are underway for emplaced, sense-on-the-fly and tossed modes of operation. To date, hand emplaced and launch-to-emplace sensors prototypes have been demonstrated with parachute sensors being readied for a sense-on-the-fly demonstration. These sensors are envisioned for crisis situations where 'sticking your head out' is a dangerous proposition.

Sandia National Labs is developing and testing a robotic perimeter detection system for small unit operations (small groups of warfighters). The objective is to demonstrate the feasibility of using a cooperative team of robotic sentry vehicles to assist the warfighter in guarding military assets. Eight 'Roving All Terrain Lunar Explorer Rovers' (RATLERs) have been built at Sandia and are being used as the test platform. A radio frequency receiver on each of the RATLERs alerts the sentry vehicles of alarms from hidden miniature intrusion detection sensors (MIDS). The MIDS currently deployed include seismic, magnetometer, passive and beam-break infrared sensor. Each RATTLER keeps an internal state representation of each of the MIDS and of the other vehicles' locations. This representation is updated several times per second as the vehicles broadcast their current state and any alarms received. When an alarm is received, each vehicle looks at this state information and decides whether it should investigate the alarm based on the proximity of itself and the other vehicles to the alarm. As one vehicle attends an alarm, the other vehicles adjust their position around the perimeter to better prepare for another alarm. This cooperative team concept can significantly reduce the workload and increase the effectiveness of a single warfighter in the battlefield. Using robot vehicles makes the perimeter detection system easily mobilized for redeployment.

The recently patented system is a software engine that is connected to a television camera that is used for security applications. It will detect in near real time any physical criminal acts occurring within the field of view of the camera. It then instantaneously transmits an alarm to law enforcement and turns on a VCR and other crime deterrent systems, without human involvement.

Remotely operated vehicle systems, ground and air, have great potential for supporting law enforcement operations. These systems with their onboard sensors, can assist in collecting evidence, performing long-term surveillance or in assessing hazardous situations prior to committing personnel. Remote ground vehicles are presently used by many police departments for ordnance clearing missions. Unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) typically offer long endurance, and are intuitive to operate, but can be severely limited in where they can go by terrain and obstacles. Unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) have 3-D mobility, but have landing and takeoff restrictions, mission time limitations, and typically are demanding to operate. A new capability has been demonstrated for the U.S. military that shows great promise for aiding police agencies. This concept uses a shrouded rotor, vertical take off and landing (VTOL), an unmanned air vehicle to provide mobility to sensors and other payloads. This system can either perform surveillance from the air or travel to a remote location and land to position onboard sensors to perform long-term surveillance from the ground. This mobility platform concept can also be used to position packages (e.g., communications repeaters) or deliver and deploy non-lethal agents. This paper presents the concept of a small, UAV, VTOL, sensor mobility system for support of law enforcement operations. It then discusses operational feasibility and briefly reviews demonstrations of surveillance and sensor placement operations in military urban terrain scenarios performed by the Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Center San Diego (SSCSD) and Sikorsky Aircraft with their full-size Cypher UAV. We then discuss the practicality of reducing the size of this capability to a system small enough to be transported in standard police vehicles and which can be easily operated by law enforcement personnel.

Currently the most common method to determine the contents of a package suspected of containing an explosive device is to use transmission radiography. This technique requires that an x-ray source and film be placed on opposite sites of the package. This poses a problem if the package is placed so that only one side is accessible, such as against a wall. There is also a threat to personnel and property since explosive devices may be 'booby trapped.' We have developed a method to x-ray a package using backscattered x-rays. This procedure eliminates the use of film behind the target. All of the detection is done from the same side as the source. When an object is subjected to x-rays, some of them are scattered back toward the source. The backscattering of x-rays is proportional to the atomic number (Z) of the material raised to the 4.1 power. This Z^4.1 dependence allows us to easily distinguish between explosives, wires, timer, batteries, and other bomb components. Backscatter experiments at Sandia National Laboratories have been conducted on mock bombs in packages. We are able to readily identify the bomb components. The images that are obtained in this procedure are done in real time and the image is displayed on a computer screen.

Recently, a survey was conducted for the Joint Project Steering Group (JPSG) of the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and Defense Advanced Project Research Agency (DARPA)to determine the state-of-the-art at the present time in through-the-wall surveillance (TWS) technology and the expected advances within the next 10 years. The applicable technologies for TWS include: impulse radar, UHF/microwave radar, millimeter wave radiometry, x-ray transmission and reflectance, and acoustics. Proposed sensors include: monostatic radar, bistatic (or multistatic) radar, radiometers, fixed antenna systems, scanning systems, and focal plane array systems. The ability to penetrate walls leads to a natural conflict between the desire to successfully penetrate walls, which implies lower frequencies and the desire to obtain maximum resolution, which implies higher frequencies. Another conflict involves sophistication of the sensor versus unit cost. These issues and the approaches taken by various developers to find workable solutions are discussed.

Three axis seismometers, buried up to 3 feet below the surface, have been used to detect and classify a variety of vehicles. Automated vehicle classification algorithms have been developed to categorize the vehicle by the number of cylinders in the engine, number of axles, engine type (gas or diesel), and its relative weight. With additional information on the propagation in the environment, and the location of the sensor relative to the path of the vehicle, absolute vehicle weight determination may be possible. Detection of personnel walking, digging activity, and dumping, have also been demonstrated. Standalone software to detect and classify the vehicle, running on a Pentium- based PC clone, has been written. Details on the standalone system, a discussion of the algorithms, and description of the performance of the system, are presented. Possible applications of such a system include unattended perimeter monitoring, vehicle counting, as well as surveillance applications.

A very important benefit of continuing advances in CMOS IC technology is the ability to construct a wide variety of micro electrical mechanical systems (MEMS), including sensors and RF components. These building blocks enable the fabrication of complete systems in a low-cost module, which include sensing, signal processing, and wireless communications. Together with innovative and focused network design techniques that will make possible simple deployment and sustained low- power operation, the small size and cost can be enabling for a very large number of law enforcement and security applications, including remote reconnaissance and security zones ranging from persons to borders. We outline how the application can be exploited in the network design to enable sustained low-power operation. In particular, extensive information processing at nodes, hierarchical decision-making, and energy conserving routing and network topology management methods will be employed in the networks under development.

An amorphous silicon (a-Si) microbolometer-based uncooled infrared camera technology, offering a low- cost, low-power solution to infrared surveillance for both civilian and military application is presented. A- Si exhibits a temperature dependent resistance with a 3000K temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of 2.7 percent/K. The uncooled a-Si microbolometer detector structure employs a low thermal mass a-Si membrane structure with high thermal isolation legs monolithically integrated on a CMOS readout integrated circuit (ROIC) chip. A refractive resonant cavity design results in approximately 90 percent infrared absorptance over the 8-13 um spectral band. A-Si also exhibits a UV/visible photoconductive response for multispectral applications. The ROIC involves an integrating amplifier per pixel and a column multiplexed output. A 15 x 31 micro infrared camera (MIRC) has been developed, which exhibits f/l noise equivalent temperature difference, thereby significantly reducing the power requirements. The 15 x 31 camera demonstrated exhibits a 35 mm camera form factor employing a low cost f/l singlet optic and LED display, as well as low cost vacuum packaging. A larger 120 x 160 version of the MIRC is also in development and will be discussed.

Broadband data from a 3-axis buried seismometer was used to develop classification algorithms to estimate relative vehicle weight and distinguish between tracked and wheeled vehicles. The automated algorithms were incorporated into a standalone detection and classification system that is written in C and hosted on a Pentium PC clone. Classifications are based on characteristics identified in low-frequency seismic spectra for a variety of ground vehicles and environments. Results from the initial spectral analysis are summarized, and details of the algorithms and their performance are presented. Absolute vehicle weight estimates, which are the focus of current efforts, may be possible given measured source levels and propagation information.

State-of-the-art unattended ground sensors (UGS) have demonstrated the ability to detect, locate/track and classify a variety of targets in most weather conditions. Experimental results from the DARPA- sponsored unattended ground sensors (UGS) program show the ability of UGS to detect and accurately track land vehicles. The use of state-of-the-art UGS and the processing of UGS data to provide useful information to drug enforcement and border patrol agencies holds the potential for more successful drug interdiction operations and a reduction in successful border intrusions. It has been shown that unattended ground sensors can be used in surveillance roles to detect and identify activities of interest with reasonable false alarm rates. State-of-the-art signal and data processing allow detection, classification and tracking of targets of interest, while false target rejection is performed through data fusion of processed sensor data. The use of multiple sensor types that compliment each other within a single package can provide nearly all- weather surveillance capability.

The capabilities of unattended ground sensors (UBSs) have steadily improved and have been shown to be of value in various military missions. Today's UGS are multifunctional, integrated sensor platforms that can detect and locate a wide variety of ground-based and airborne targets. Due primarily to cost and size constraints of these UGS, they have not been widely used for law enforcement surveillance applications. As an alternative to a single, monolithic sensor platform, remote surveillance may be possible with smaller, less obtrusive sensors that work cooperatively together as a network. The objective of this study was to develop algorithms that can optimally organize and adaptively control a network of UGSs in order to achieve a surveillance mission. In the present study, the sensor network, a random distribution of sensors over a surveillance area (emulates airborne sensor deployment), determines an optimal combination of its sensors that will detect multiple targets and consume the lease amount of power. This problem is considered a multiobjective optimization problem to which there is no unique solution. Furthermore, for a linearly increasing number of sensors, the combinatorial search space increases exponentially. To reduce the search space, a novel clustering method was developed based on whether the sensor can sense the target rather than on similarities between the sensors. A genetic algorithm (GA) was used to obtain a quasioptimal solution for the sensor combination problem. To evaluate the effectiveness of the optimization, figures of merit were developed that are applicable to a sensor network tasked with a surveillance problem. Software-simulated data was used to test software implementation of the clustering, optimization and figure of merit functions. The clustering method reduced the search space by an average of ten orders of magnitude. For a sensor population of 100 sensors that was tasked to detect 24 targets, the GA was able to select optimal sets of sensors for detection and minimization of power consumption. The results demonstrate the feasibility of optimally configuring and controlling a network of sensors for remote surveillance applications.

Detection and classification of footsteps and other impulsive signals are a critical function of urban surveillance systems. An example is the wireless integrated network sensor (WINS) system, which is designed to meet this requirement for both law enforcement and military agencies. The detection and classification algorithms should be sufficiently robust to handle a wide variety of environments, but remain of low complexity to allow low power implementation. We present a modified time-domain method for impulse signal classification based on the Haar wavelet transform. The Haar wavelet basis is ideal for short time signals as it provides the best localization in the time domain. Further, the Haar transform has the shortest and simplest filter/basis system, with the scaling function filter using the average of two points and the wavelet filter being the difference between two points. Our classification scheme uses the Haar transform of the input signal to obtain the signal envelope, which is described by the decimated low pass filter coefficients. When implemented on many WINS nodes, this simple procedure has the further advantage of being able to do signal source detection in both location and time.

A universal sensor interface model (USIM) is being developed by the Raytheon-TI Systems Company for use with fields of unattended distributed sensors. In its production configuration, the USIM will be a multichip module consisting of a set of common modules. The common module USIM set consists of (1) a sensor adapter interface (SAI) module, (2) digital signal processor (DSP) and associated memory module, and (3) a RF transceiver model. The multispectral sensor interface is designed around a low-power A/D converted, whose input/output interface consists of: -8 buffered, sampled inputs from various devices including environmental, acoustic seismic and magnetic sensors. The eight sensor inputs are each high-impedance, low- capacitance, differential amplifiers. The inputs are ideally suited for interface with discrete or MEMS sensors, since the differential input will allow direct connection with high-impedance bridge sensors and capacitance voltage sources. Each amplifier is connected to a 22-bit (Delta) (Sigma) A/D converter to enable simultaneous samples. The low power (Delta) (Sigma) converter provides 22-bit resolution at sample frequencies up to 142 hertz (used for magnetic sensors) and 16-bit resolution at frequencies up to 1168 hertz (used for acoustic and seismic sensors). The video interface module is based around the TMS320C5410 DSP. It can provide sensor array addressing, video data input, data calibration and correction. The processor module is based upon a MPC555. It will be used for mode control, synchronization of complex sensors, sensor signal processing, array processing, target classification and tracking. Many functions of the A/D, DSP and transceiver can be powered down by using variable clock speeds under software command or chip power switches. They can be returned to intermediate or full operation by DSP command. Power management may be based on the USIM's internal timer, command from the USIM transceiver, or by sleep mode processing management. The low power detection mode is implemented by monitoring any of the sensor analog outputs at lower sample rates for detection over a software controllable threshold.

During May 1997 - October 1998, SPAWARSYSCEN Code D746, under the sponsorship of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), conducted several field tests using off-the-shelf (OTS) 900 MHz wireless modems in different operating environments, typical of those targeted by unattended ground sensor (UGS) applications. Using ground-based 12 inch (mounted on 3 inch base) 3dB onmidirectional antennas on both communication ends, the performance of three OTS modems was evaluated. By varying path lengths, baud rates, file sizes, RF environments, and degrees of line of sight (LOS), a comprehensive profile of each modem's performance was established. Because of the nature of ground-level communications (varied LOS) and the many environmental variables which can dramatically affect performance, this paper does not attempt to model performance or draw conclusions as to which modem is best suited for all UGS applications. However, based on the results of these field tests, the OTS modem using frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) performed considerably better than the two other OTS modems using direct sequence spread spectrum. This certainly could be attributed to the poor quality of the two DSSS modems used in the field tests, and a more comprehensive side-by-side comparison is recommended. In addition, the paper does offer insight into the limitations of the OTS wireless modems, and demonstrates how greater degrees of LOS can tremendously boost their range and reliability.

Ground vehicle bearing determinations have been made using a single buried three-axis seismometer. The method is based on Rayleigh wave detection and exploits the phase difference between measured wave components. Maximum correlation values for the vertical component cross-correlated with horizontal beam components determine the propagation direction. Theoretical simulations demonstrate the technique. Two applications useful in monitoring vehicle traffic, vehicle velocity estimates and direction of travel (DOT), are also discussed. Comparisons of results obtained for several vehicles at different test sites are included.

The Air Force Research Laboratory Multi-Sensor Exploitation Branch (AFRL/IFEC) has been a Department of Defense leader in research and development (R&D) in speech and audio processing for over 25 years. Their primary thrust in these R&D areas has focused on developing technology to improve the collection, handling, identification, and intelligibility of military communication signals. The National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center for the Northeast (NLECTC-NE) is collocated with the AFRL Rome Research Site^d at the Griffiss Technology park in upstate New York. The NLECTC-NE supports sixteen (16) states in the northeast sector of the United States, and is funded and supported by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Since the inception of the NLECTC-NE in 1995, the AFRL Rome Research Site has expanded the military applications of their expertise to address law enforcement and corrections requirements. AFRL/IFEC's speech and audio processing technology is unique and particularly appropriate for application to law enforcement requirements. It addresses the similar military need for time-critical decisions and actions, operation within noisy environments, and use by uncooperative speakers in tactical, real-time applications. Audio and speech processing technology for both application domains must also often deal with short utterance communications (less than five seconds of speech) and transmission-to-transmission channel variability.

This paper discusses technical challenges and concerns that must be resolved in order to implement a computer network security architecture for accessing differently classified data from a single network computer. Most multilevel security approaches utilize a trusted operating system (OS) to maintain data separation between differently classified data. The goal is to enable simultaneous or multiplexed viewing of differently classified data through a Windows manager. However, application development costs are expensive due to strict compliance requirements imposed by secure (trusted) OS procedures. Furthermore, security mechanisms employed in a trusted OS, sometimes preclude customer-required features, and integrating government off-the-shelf (GOTS) software from competing vendors on the application server can be problematic. A computer system security architecture provides a superior alternative to the cumbersome and costly trusted OS approach for displaying differently classified data on the same computer screen. Given the proper security architecture, the system should be accredited for government use, liberating software programmers to apply modern development techniques without excessive concern over security. This will leave the developer more time to concentrate on code functionality and reduce the cost of GOTS applications.

Managing the timely access of information is a major challenge facing law enforcement agencies. One of the areas of greatest need is that of the case management process. During the course of FY98, the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), the Counterdrug Technology Assessment Center (CTAC), the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL), and the Criminal Investigative Bureau (CIB) of the state of Idaho, created a Northwest testbed to develop and integrate a multimedia case management system. A system was developed to assist investigators in tracking and maintaining investigative cases and improving access to internal and external data resources. In this paper, we discuss the results of our case management system development and the ability to present state and federal information incorporating object oriented and multimedia techniques. We then outline our plans for future research and development.

This paper addresses advanced software radio architecture and technologies that promise to improve the communications aspect of the interoperability problem. Its intent is to inform the reader of technologies under development today that could provide the means to solve many of the issues that limit communication between agencies and jurisdictions of the public safety sector. It is not intended to address issues such as spectrum allocation or operational coordination. Basic elements of interoperability are addressed and basic definitions of the problem are provided. Issues such as multijurisdiction and multiagency coordination are addressed. The issue of the wide range of frequencies allocated for public safety use is of particular importance. A software radio architecture presentation follows with a discussion of the basic components and the benefits of this approach. The primary software radio benefit is the use of a single radio to provide communication on a number of different frequencies with different demodulation schemes. Unique approaches to radio frequency preselection, broad band signal down conversion, high-speed digital sampling techniques, and multichannel signals processing are discussed. Enabling technologies will then be introduced, briefly covering microelectromechanical systems radio frequency devices, silicon germanium radio frequency application specific integrated circuits, advanced analog to digital converters, state-of-the-art digital signal processing, and vertical cavity surface emitting lasers. The conclusion of the paper is that an advanced technology software radio is a viable, cost-effective solution for the interoperability problem in the public safety sector.

This document has been prepared to describe a high level technical concept of operations for a multifunctional system supporting both communications and surveillance applications. For illustrative purposes, the application is focused on an implementation with the small unit operations situational awareness system (SUOSAS) network and a generic software programmable radio. This CONOP includes a preliminary view of the network configuration, and the timesharing between communications and surveillance functions. In a typical push-to-talk voice radio, multiple radio elements share a single channel. Normally, each radio is employed as a communication device only a small percentage of the time. During the time that the radio is not being used for communication, it is available to support other functions. If the receive path of the radio is configured to scan the RF environment during these times, signals that are of interest to the radio user can be detected and analyzed. In addition, low cost time bases derived from global positioning system (GPS) clocks, provide the capability to determine the position of these signals based on time difference of arrival (TDOA) techniques. A software defined multiband radio, access to a common timebase, and a robust data network are required to support the functions described in the paper.

This paper presents a wavelet-based image coder optimized for transmission over binary symmetric channels (BSC). The proposed coder uses a robust channel-optimized trellis-coded quantization (COTCQ) stage that is designed to optimize the image coding based on channel characteristics. This optimization is performed only at the level of the source encoder, and does not include any channel coding for error protection. The robust nature of the coder increases the security level of the encoded bit stream and provides a much more visually pleasant rendition of the decoded image. Consequently, the proposed robust channel-optimized image coder is especially suitable for wireless transmission due to its reduced complexity, its robustness to non-stationary signals and channels, and its increased security level.

The Boeing Company in Anaheim, California, is developing a low-cost, lightweight, portable system that provides the capability for user identification, location, and both voice and secure data communication. The combat survivor evader locator (CSEL) provides the users in the field with precision GPS-based geoposition and navigation data, two-way OTH secure digital message communication to joint search and rescue centers (JSRCs), OTH beacon operation, and LOS voice communication and sweep tone/beacon capabilities. Using a combination of global positioning system (GPS) and over-the-horizon (OTH) techniques, as well as local airborne and ground dissemination assets, information can be transmitted to a central command and control (C²)node for integration and display (see Figure 1).

The sharing of information between law enforcement agencies is a premise for the success of all jurisdictions. A wealth of information resides in both the databases and infrastructures of local, state, and regional agencies. However, this information is often not available to the law enforcement professionals who require it. When the information is, available, individual investigators must not only know that it exists, but where it resides, and how to retrieve it. In many cases, these types of cross-jurisdictional communications are limited to personal relationships that result from telephone calls, faxes, and in some cases, e-mail. As criminal elements become more sophisticated and distributed, law enforcement agencies must begin to develop infrastructures and common sharing mechanisms that address a constantly evolving criminal threat. Historically, criminals have taken advantage of the lack of communication between law enforcement agencies. Examples of this are evident in the search for stolen property and monetary dealings. Pawned property, cash transactions, and failure to supply child support are three common cross- jurisdictional crimes that could be better enforced by strengthening the lines of communication. Criminal behavior demonstrates that it is easier to profit from their actions by dealing in separate jurisdictions. For example, stolen property is sold outside of the jurisdiction of its origin. In most cases, simply traveling a short distance to the adjoining county or municipality is sufficient to ensure that apprehension of the criminal or seizure of the stolen property is highly unlikely. In addition to the traditional burglar, fugitives often sell or pawn property to finance their continued evasion from the law. Sharing of information in a rapid manner would increase the ability of law enforcement personnel to track and capture fugitives, as well as criminals. In an example to combat this threat, the State of Florida recently acted on the need to share crucial investigative information across jurisdictional bounds by establishing a communications infrastructure for all of its law enforcement jurisdictions. The Criminal Justice Network (CJ-Net) is a statewide TCP/IP network, dedicated to the sharing of law enforcement information. CJ-Net is managed and maintained by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE) and provides open access and privileges to any criminal justice agency, including the state court and penitentiary systems. In addition to Florida, other states, such as North Carolina, are also beginning to implement common protocol communication infrastructures and architectures in order to link local jurisdictions together throughout the state. The law enforcement domain in an optimum situation for information-sharing technologies. Communication infrastructures are continually established, and as such, action is required to effectively use these networks to their full potential. Information technologies that are best suited for the law enforcement domain, must be evaluated and implemented in a cost-effective manner. Unlike the Defense Department and other large federal agencies, individual jurisdictions at both the local and state level cannot afford to expend limited resources on research and development of prototype systems. Therefore, we must identify enabling technologies that have matured in related domains and transition them into law enforcement at a minimum cost. Crucial to this measure, is the selection of the appropriate levels of information-sharing technologies to be inserted. Information-sharing technologies that are unproven or have extensive recurring costs are not suitable for this domain. Information-sharing technologies traditionally exist between two distinct polar bounds: the data warehousing approach and mediation across distributed heterogeneous data sources. These two ends of the spectrum represent extremely different philosophies in accomplishing the same goal. In the following sections of this paper, discussions of information-sharing mechanisms will be addressed and the effectiveness of each is examined for the law enforcement domain. In each case, it is the opinion of the author as to which approach would lend itself to the most appropriate solution to the problem of effectively sharing criminal justice information.

BBN has developed flexible counter-sniper technology capable of shooter and bullet trajectory localization using fixed, vehicle-mounted, and/or body-worn microphone sensors. The proof of principle (POP) systems developed are accurate, low-cost, lightweight, and easy to install and use. The use of both supersonic bullet shock waves, and/or the muzzle blast, allows detection and localization of shooters with intentional or accidental muzzle blast suppression, or with subsonic rounds. This makes the system capable of finding shooters firing from within buildings or vehicles. It also requires fewer sensor installations per unit area and increases system robustness to the noise and reverberation present in urban settings. In this paper we first summarize the current POP system hardware and software configurations and show the results of government testing in urban and rural environments for military applications. Following this, cost and performance issues for urban law enforcement applications are presented, and performance predictions for various system configurations in an urban street monitoring scenario are given.

Law enforcement and military operations would clearly benefit from a capability to locate snipers by backtracking the sniper's bullet trajectory. Achieving sufficient backtracking accuracy for bullets is a demanding radar design, requiring good measurement accuracy, high update rate, and detection of very low cross-section objects. In addition, reasonable cost is a driving requirement for law enforcement use. These divergent design requirements are addressed in an experimental millimeter-wave focal plane array radar that uses integrated millimeter-wave receiver technology. The radar is being built for DARPA by Technology Service Corporation, with assistance from M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory and QuinStar Technology. The key element in the radar is a 35-GHz focal plane array receiver. The receiving antenna lens focuses radar signals from a wide field of view onto an array of receivers, each receiver processing a separate element of the field of view. Receiver detections are then combined in a tracking processor. An FM-CW waveform is used to provide high average power, good range resolution, and stationary clutter rejection. TSC will be testing the sniper detection radar, using radar environment simulator technology developed at Lincoln Laboratory. The simulator will retransmit the received signal with the range delay, Doppler shift, and ERP for various simulated bullet trajectories.

In July of 1995, Lockheed Martin IR Imaging Systems, of Lexington, Massachusetts began the development of an integrated sniper location system for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and for the Department of the Navy's Naval Command Control & Ocean Surveillance Center, RDTE Division in San Diego, California. The I-SLS integrates acoustic and uncooled infrared sensing technologies to provide an affordable and highly effective sniper detection and location capability. This system, its performance and results from field tests at Camp Pendleton, California, in October 1996 were described in a paper presented at the November 1996 SPIE Photonics East Symposium¹ on Enabling Technologies for Law Enforcement and Security. The I-SLS combines an acoustic warning system with an uncooled infrared warning system. The acoustic warning system has been developed by SenTech, Inc., of Lexington, Massachusetts. This acoustic warning system provides sniper detection and coarse location information based upon the muzzle blast of the sniper's weapon and/or upon the shock wave produced by the sniper's bullet, if the bullet is supersonic. The uncooled infrared warning system provides sniper detection and fine location information based upon the weapon's muzzle flash. In addition, the uncooled infrared warning system can provide thermal imagery that can be used to accurately locate and identify the sniper. Combining these two technologies improves detection probability, reduces false alarm rate and increases utility. In the two years since the last report of the integrated sniper location system, improvements have been made and a second field demonstration was planned. In this paper, we describe the integrated sniper location system modifications in preparation for the new field demonstration. In addition, fundamental improvements in the uncooled infrared sensor technology continue to be made. These improvements include higher sensitivity (lower minimum resolvable temperature), higher spatial resolution, and smaller size. This paper will describe the implementation and status of these improvements.

Visidyne, Inc., teaming with Sandia National Laboratories, has developed the preliminary design for an innovative scannerless 3-D laser radar capable of acquiring, tracking, and determining the coordinates of small caliber projectiles in flight with sufficient precision, so their origin can be established by back projecting their tracks to their source. The design takes advantage of the relatively large effective cross-section of a bullet at optical wavelengths. Kay to its implementation is the use of efficient, high- power laser diode arrays for illuminators and an imaging laser receiver using a unique CCD imager design, that acquires the information to establish x, y (angle-angle) and range coordinates for each bullet at very high frame rates. The detection process achieves a high degree of discrimination by using the optical signature of the bullet, solar background mitigation, and track detection. Field measurements and computer simulations have been used to provide the basis for a preliminary design of a robust bullet tracker, the Counter Sniper 3-D Laser Radar. Experimental data showing 3-D test imagery acquired by a lidar with architecture similar to that of the proposed Counter Sniper 3-D Lidar are presented. A proposed Phase II development would yield an innovative, compact, and highly efficient bullet-tracking laser radar. Such a device would meet the needs of not only the military, but also federal, state, and local law enforcement organizations.

Rapidly improving technology is transitioning current laboratory images into reality with fielded systems expected within two years. W-band radiometers have been shown to be effective in detecting metallic and nonmetallic weapons concealed under heavy garments in both outdoor and indoor situations. Systems that are in development will provide real-time display and weapon detection in controlled situations. The incorporation of technology improvements that have already been demonstrated will double the sensitivity and provide affordable systems with rapid scanning for general use. Lockheed Martin and Intelligent Machine Technology are working to build a demonstration system for the Department of Justice and the Air Force Research Laboratory that can be extended to take advantage of rapidly moving semiconductor improvements. Our current radiometer modules use a PIN switch for the Dicke calibration function followed by multiple low noise amplifier stages, a Schottky detector and a video amplifier. Sensitivity of such modules if primarily a function of the insertion loss and noise figure of the front end MMEC circuits. Processing improvements at Lockheed Martin and refined chip design will result in a 3-db improvement in the effective noise figure within the next year. Imaging is also greatly improved by achieving greater effective bandwidth and higher operating frequency. Whereas present modules operate from 80 to 90 G Hz, MMEC improvements will provide for operation up to 140G Hz with a doubling of the bandwidth in the near term. Receiver operation up to 540G Hz has also been demonstrated at other labs.

Most senior police officials are competent when it comes to assessing and managing physical risk during the course of law enforcement activities. Some even have aptitude for managing sociopolitical risks, but they are much rarer and are usually found in larger departments, which can afford to send senior officers to public speaking and media-management courses. There are tools that can be adapted from industrial safety to aid in managing sociopolitical risks in law enforcement activities. One such tool is the HAZards and OPerability Study (HAZOPS)tool¹. This tool is basically a systemic method of performing 'what if' studies. This tool, and some others, are described in this paper.

This paper will present information regarding the fate of technologies developed in the national laboratory, which were designed to meet a specific law enforcement user need, but were or were not successful in making it to market. The two examples, one successful and one not completely successful, will be presented in a perspective to provide discussion as too why their individual fates were as such. The two examples, air bag restraint and barriers strip, both law enforcement technologies, were both designed to meet a targeted need, and yet their success was different. One has been licensed to an industry partner and is currently on the shelf for purchase. The other is awaiting a licensee and its future is still undetermined. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the specific paths these technologies have taken to market, and to demonstrate that even when researchers have a good idea, their technology may never make it to the shelf. This paper also addresses some of the pitfalls of what occurs when researchers are too distant from the user community and what that distance can do to a successful or unsuccessful technology. Understanding this process is essential to the user communities that anticipate the market of technologies that they often help assist with or provide insight to. It is also important for users and manufacturers to understand why the research and development process can take years, and why some things do not fully actualize in accepted technologies.

Product liability can be a major issue with the commercialization of any technology in introducing it to the marketplace. Proper planning and execution of a product design, development, test, and manufacturing process, in conjunction with an experienced legal council, are necessary to avoid unnecessary liability exposure or to mitigate the effects of lawsuits if and when they occur. The involvement of corporate management in the principles of safety, quality, and a disciplined team approach will serve a company well in this unique market. This paper presents ten areas for product development teams to consider as they proceed with the design, development, test, manufacturing, and support of law enforcement and corrections products.

The National Colloquium for Information Systems Security Education (the Colloquium) was established in 1997 to serve as a living body to bring government, industry, and academia together to meet the challenges of information security. All aspects of our lives and all aspects of our social, economic and political system are becoming increasingly dependent on our information and communications infrastructure. The security and assurance of our information and communications infrastructure should be a national priority. To address this, our nation needs an information-literate work force that is aware of its vulnerability, as well as a cadre of information professionals that are knowledgeable of the recognized 'best practices available in information security and information assurance, as called for in Presidential Decision Directive 63, May 22, 1998. It is the task of American higher education to provide that information- literate work force and to prepare information professions. To meet this priority, higher education must be informed of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be taught in the general curricula and in the information curricula of its colleges and universities. Industry and government must under their role in supporting higher education, not simply expecting higher education to be responsive and informed about information security and assurance.

The purpose of this paper is to provide information regarding the development process of a technology which is conceived of in a federal laboratory, and show the path technology will take, from the conceptual stage to being packaged and located on the shelf for purchase. This process, although somewhat complex in terms of time and effort, is the pathway followed by laboratory research and development staff when they take an idea, develop it into a technology prototype and transfer it to industry for final development and production. This pathway is at times a straightforward effort, and at other times, it is a complicated path. By providing an understanding of this process, it is hoped that law enforcement practitioners and private sector law enforcement technology providers, who seek technology transfer from federal facilities, will better understand why the duration between concept and commodity is often so long, and why the licensing process is so complicated. This understanding, it is hoped, will better explain why some ideas remain in the laboratory for several years, waiting the final licensing, and why this process takes time. This paper also briefly addresses the complexities of public funding of technologies, the complexities of testing (especially where humans are involved) and the cooperative agreements that often accompany technology transfer.

Six years ago at SPIE, a team of government researchers and engineers unveiled a new, military, weapons team engagement trainer (WTET). At that time, potential applications of this prototype military training device to civilian law enforcement training were realized. Subsequent action was taken under the Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986, enabling the transfer of WTET to the private sector, through a cooperative agreement between: the Office of Naval Research (ONR), NAWCTSD, and the commercial weapons training organization Firearms Training Systems, Inc. (FATS). Planning also began for release of a commercial WTET sytem. The government research and development facility and the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) formed a cooperative agreement to make the prototype system available to military, federal, and local law enforcement agencies for use in Orlando, Florida - until a commercial version could become available. This cooperative effort has provided evidence of the effectiveness and realism of WTET with law enforcement personnel. This paper offers a technical description of the improvements made to WTET, a brief explanation of the commercialization process, a summary of the evaluations conducted to date, and insight into how that information has been used in the development of the commercial version.

The United States is at target. For those of us who grew up curing the cold war this is not news; however, the threat is different than it has been in the past. Now it may be another super power or it may be a teenage child with a personal computer. Both government and civilian entities are potential targets. The national information infrastructure (NII) is the real target. The determined hacker can bring down not only government systems, but the power-grid, the financial system, or the air traffic control system as well. All organizations must be aware of the threat and be prepared to react appropriately. Of course, the federal government has begun to protect their critical systems. However, many American corporations have not yet fully protected their systems. Since there is a common threat, common standards for countermeasures are applicable. This paper reports on the use of an electronic meeting room technology by government, industry, and academia to establish a national training standard. If you are a CIO or advise one about security matters, these standards are important.

Becoming a career fire fighter in the state of Idaho requires specialized knowledge and training. Fire science education at Idaho colleges and universities is available only to people who are affiliated with a fire department. Law enforcement curriculum, on the other hand, is available to any interested persons. A student in law enforcement can attend the Police Officers Standards and Training (POST) academy or participate in classes in one of Idaho's institutions for higher education. There are no fire academies in Idaho. Applicants wanting to become professional fire fighters in Idaho are required to compete with applicants from other states; many of whom have had prior fire education and training. Resident Idaho fire fighter applicants are at a disadvantage when applying for Idaho fire fighting positions. Because of this apparent need, I surveyed the Idaho fire chiefs, using a research instrument I developed in a graduate field research class. I wrote the research instrument to determine the educational needs of the Idaho fire service. The College of Southern Idaho (CSI) and the Idaho Fire Chiefs Association (IFCA) were the recipients of this survey. This report, Analysis of Idaho Fire Service Education, describes that research process from beginning to end.

Most Idaho communities are not prepared to handle a hazardous materials incident and must rely on resources outside of their jurisdiction for assistance. Idaho has established four Regional Response Teams (RRT) to help the communities. The teams are located in the northern, north-central, south-western and south-eastern parts of the state. The south-central area is served by a team from Boise or Pocatello. Response from either team requires nearly four hours of travel time. After analyzing the problems of time and distance, six counties from south-central Idaho have agreed to provide a team to function as an RRT during the initial phases of an incident. This organization is unprecedented because it consists of members from law enforcement, local fire protection organizations, emergency medical personnel, and local government agencies who will share personnel, equipment, resources, and training. The Magic Valley Emergency Response Team (MVERT) is locally funded and self- governed. MVERT has received support from the Idaho Bureau of Hazardous Materials, State Bureau of Disaster Services, Idaho Division of Environmental Quality, Idaho Emergency Services Training and Idaho State Police. MVERT is not limited to hazardous materials incidents and can respond to any emergency requiring specialized training and equipment.