We present a beam shaping method using deformable mirrors without using a target beam shape.
The key to the method is the use of an image-based metric on the quality of beam with respect to
the desired attributes of the super-Gaussian output beam. This technique iteratively adjusts the
deformable mirror shape to minimize the metric measured using a charge-coupled device camera.
Since the algorithm does not use a target beam for the optimization, it produces the resulting
super-Gaussian beam geometry consistent with the constraints imposed by the limited stroke and
the finite number of actuators of the deformable mirror.
Due to the tradeoff between field of view and resolution, the ability of traditional optical telescopes to obtain
high-resolution wide field images is limited. This work presents a design for a scanning optical telescope that
can produce high resolution images over a wide field of view. This is accomplished by scanning one of the
telescope's optical elements. Inherent in such a design is the introduction of optical aberrations as off-axis
scanning occurs. The deformable mirror technology is implemented to adaptively correct these aberrations such
that on-axis resolution is achieved at off-axis scan angles. The optical design layout is optimized in software
to minimize on-axis wavefront aberrations. This paper presents results involving two deformable mirrors based
on different technologies: the AgilOptics mirror based on electrostatic actuators and the Imagine Optic mirror
based on electromagnetic actuators. Both mirrors are similar in size (about 15mm aperture), but the Imagine
Optic mirror has significantly larger actuator displacement, though at a higher cost. The static telescope design
has a field of view of 0.49-degrees which is increased to 20-degrees with the AgilOptics mirror and 40-degrees
with the Imagine Optic mirror.
Traditional solutions for long term imaging of living small biological specimens and microorganisms lack efficiency
due to computationally expensive algorithms, and field of view limitations in optical microscopes. This paper
describes a new algorithm that allows for real time tracking of multiple 1mm nematodes called Caenorhabditis
elegans with a novel optical microscope design called the Adaptive Scanning Optical Microscope (ASOM), developed
at the Center for Automation Technologies and Systems (CATS). Based on the real time experimentation,
an improved algorithm to track multiple worms in the presence of entanglements is generated. The stages of
this development start with an enhanced digital motion controller for the ASOM high speed scanning mirror
to suppress undesired vibrations that limit the system capacity to track multiple organisms. The second phase
is the integration of the ASOM apparatus, the high speed motion control, and a base tracking algorithm, all
which allows for rapid image acquisition to track multiple C. elegans in real time. The base algorithm was
developed at CATS and has been proven to track a single C. elegans in real time. Results demonstrating the
efficacy of the complete system are presented. Lastly, an enhanced tracking algorithm is described that shows
improved accuracy and robustness in tracking worms even when they become entangled. Taking into account
the unique ASOM design, individual segments of the worm are tracked throughout an image sequence, and a
mosaic pattern covering the entire worm is subsequently created. The algorithm takes advantage of geometric
and dynamic knowledge of the C. elegans such as size, and movement patterns. The enhanced algorithm is tested
on previously recorded footage. Simulated tracking experiments also illustrate the effectiveness of the enhanced
algorithm and are presented.
For a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and
manufacturing, the small field of view associated with high-resolution
microscope systems poses a significant challenge in practice. To address
this limitation, a novel optical microscope uses a micromachined
MEMS deformable mirror working with a specially designed scan lens to
achieve a two-order-of-magnitude increase in the field of view area.
Called the adaptive scanning optical microscope ASOM, the deformable
mirror in the ASOM is an integral component of the optical system
and the static glass optical elements are specifically designed to match
the shape correcting capabilities of the deformable mirror itself. After
describing the design and operating principle of the ASOM, experimental
results from a low-cost prototype are presented. It is shown how an
image-based optimization method can be used to first calibrate the electrical
voltages to the MEMS deformable mirror. And once calibrated, we
show how the deformable mirror can be used in an open loop control
approach for very fast operation during run time. The methods for calibration
of a MEMS deformable mirror and basic control structures demonstrated
form the basis for a range of emerging adaptive-opticsenabled
technologies and instrumentation.
Imaging of small biological specimens and microorganisms that are living and moving is often hampered by a
traditional microscope's small field of view at high resolution. This paper discusses a new optical microscope
design, called the Adaptive Scanning Optical Microscope (ASOM), which uses a deformable mirror combined
with a custom scanner lens to effectively enlarge the field of view. Using a high speed scanning mirror in a
post-objective configuration, the ASOM captures a complete image (not a single point) at each scan position
and assembles image mosaics on the fly. Consequently, this microscope offers advantages when compared to
moving stage based approaches or confocal microscopes. Whereas previous work on imaging motile organisms
has primarily focused on tracking only one temporally challenging specimen at a time within a single field of view,
this microscope is well suited for tracking multiple moving organisms or monitoring larger organisms at both the
full animal and single cell levels simultaneously. In studies requiring manipulation, probing, or sensing, the ability
of the microscope to automatically monitor several regions of the specimen without agitating the workspace is
particularly advantageous. Using a low cost prototype of the ASOM, we illustrate the basic capabilities of the
instrument by imaging multiple living and freely moving Caenorhabditis elegans nematode worms. In addition to
transmitted, reflected, and epifluorescent illumination modes, we have also integrated an LED light source that
can be rapidly turned on and off in synchronization with the scanning to minimize unnecessary light exposure
to the specimens.
For a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and manufacturing, the small field of view associated with
high resolution microscope systems poses a significant challenge in practice. This paper describes an optical
microscope design, called the Adaptive Scanning Optical Microscope (ASOM), which uses a MEMS deformable
mirror working with a specially designed scanning lens to achieve a greatly expanded field of view. Most adaptive
optics systems (e.g. telescopes and ophthalmology instruments) are designed to achieve near ideal performance
under nominal operating conditions and primarily use the adaptive optics element to compensate for a time
varying disturbance to the wavefront that is external to the optical system. In contrast to this approach,
the deformable mirror in the ASOM is an integral component of the optical system and the static (glass)
optical elements have been specifically designed to match the shape correcting capabilities of the deformable
mirror. Using a high speed steering mirror coordinated with the deformable mirror actuation voltages, the
ASOM operates by scanning over the workspace and should achieve diffraction limited imaging over a region
approximately two orders of magnitude larger in area than a traditional microscope design. With the rapid
scanning capabilities allowed by the high speed steering mirror and by acquiring a complete image during each
exposure, the ASOM offers advantages in dynamically reconfigurable and adaptable imaging with no agitation
to the workspace. After describing the design and operating principle of the ASOM, we present results from a
low cost ASOM prototype.
Dynamic optical systems that include active and adaptive optical elements allow the pursuit of scientific investigations,
military applications, and medical diagnostics that are well beyond the theoretical capabilities of a
purely static optical design. However, the design of such systems is particularly challenging because of the large
number of design variables, multiple operating configurations, and the need to coordinate different simulation
tools (e.g. optical ray tracing, finite element analysis, dynamic simulations, etc.) during the design and optimization
process. This paper presents a design methodology to facilitate the design and optimization of our
novel Adaptive Scanning Optical Microscope (ASOM), which includes a fast steering mirror (FSM), a custom
designed scanner lens, and a MEMS deformable mirror (DM) to effectively enlarge the field of view in optical
microscopy. An "all at once" formulation of the optimization problem using a traditional construction of the
merit function proved inadequate. Instead, our approach first partitions the design problem into manageable
sub-problems and uses the Collaborative Optimization (CO) framework to coordinate the system wide optimization
of the sub-problems while maintaining a physically consistent solution between the simulation codes. Next,
we demonstrate the efficacy of the approach by presenting two ASOM designs that were generated using this
methodology. The first design is based on high fidelity simulations and the second lower cost version has been
constructed and tested in our laboratory using a 32 actuator deformable mirror. We conclude by summarizing
our experiences and discussing how the approach could be generalized to other optical system design challenges.
Smart materials such as piezoceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and shape memory alloys exhibit significant hysteresis, especially when driven with large input signals. Hysteresis can lead to unwanted harmonics, inaccuracy in open loop control, and instability in closed loop control. The Preisach independent domain hysteresis model has been shown to capture the major features of hysteresis arising in ferromagnetic materials. Noting the similarity between the microscopic domain kinematics that generate static hysteresis effects in ferromagnetics, piezoceramics, and shape memory alloys, we apply the Preisach model for the hysteresis in piezoceramic and shape memory alloy materials. This paper reviews the basic properties of the Preisach model, discusses control-theoretic issues such as identification, simulation, and inversion, and presents experimental results for piezoceramic sheet actuators bonded to a flexible aluminum beam, and a Nitinol SMA wire muscle that applies a bending force to the end of a beam.
Shape memory alloy has been considered as an actuator for applications that require low bandwidth, high force, and large displacement. Two factors have limited the usefulness of such actuators: hysteresis and bandwidth limitation. This paper considers the hysteresis phenomenon from a control point of view. We first consider the application of the Preisach hysteresis model to describe the SMA hysteresis, and demonstrated experimentally that the two key assumptions: minor loop congruence and wiping-out property hold approximately. We then consider the feedback control of the force exerted by the SMA wire. By using a simple lumped temperature model, we argue that proportional feedback with a suitable range of gains would render the closed loop stable. This is verified experimentally in a simple experimental setup consisting of a flexible aluminum beam and to a Nitinol shape memory alloy wire that applies a bending force to the end of the beam. When the gain is chosen too high, clear instability has been observed despite the low bandwidth of this system (about 1 Hz).
Many of the smart materials being investigated (e.g., piezoceramics, shape memory alloys (SMAs), and magnetostrictives) exhibit significant hysteresis effects, especially when driven with large control signals. Furthermore a single input single output hysteresis model may not adequately capture the corresponding nonlinear effects due to the influence of an unmodeled parameter, and two input hysteresis models may therefore be more appropriate. In this paper the Preisach model and inverse compensator for a piezoceramic sheet actuator is described and experimental data presented. The effect of a large independent applied stress on the observed applied electric field to measured strain hysteresis for a piezoceramic sheet actuator is demonstrated.
The so-called smart structures frequently have more sensors than actuators, due to the lower cost and simpler instrumentation. The passivity based controller, which is frequently used in structural control due to its inherent robustness properties, requires sensor/actuator collocation; therefore, it can at best utilize only a subset of the sensors. This paper considers the design of a `squaring down' matrix which would render a system passive subject to some additional performance considerations. This problem is cast as a set of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs) which can be efficiently solved due to the recent advance in interior point methods in convex programming. We applied this procedure with the assumption that the sensors provide displacement as well as velocity information which is generally not true. We show that the proposed scheme can be implemented without the use of such velocity information. Simulation results involving a single flexible beam with torque input and hub position and strain gauge output are presented.
Many of the Smart materials being investigated (e.g., Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), piezoceramics, and magnetostrictives) exhibit significant hysteresis effects, especially when driven with large control signals. In this paper the similarity between the microscopic domain kinematics that generate static hysteresis effects, or ferromagnetics, piezoceramics and SMAs is noted. The Preisach independent domain hysteresis model, and its derivatives, have been shown to be a comprehensive class of hysteresis operator that captures the major features of ferromagnetic hysteresis, and hence it is proposed here as a suitable model for piezoceramic and SMA hysteresis also. This basic Preisach model is used to model piezoceramic sheet actuators bonded to a flexible aluminum beam, and a Nitinol SMA wire muscle that applies a bending force to the end of the beam. A numerical inverse Preisach hysteresis series compensator is also proposed and applied in a real time experiment thereby reducing the apparent nonlinear hysteresis effects for the piezoceramic actuator quasi-static case.
Smart structure has become an increasingly common term describing a structure embedded or bonded with a large number of lightweight active electro-mechanical sensors and actuators. In this paper, we consider the modeling and control issues related to smart structures bonded with piezoelectric sensors and actuators from the passivity viewpoint. We show that when a piezoelectric patch is used both as an actuator and a sensor, the mapping from the voltage input to current output is passive, which implies that any strictly passive feedback controllers are stabilizing. Issues related to the design of the passive feedback controller with performance optimization and controller order reduction are investigated.
Despite the recent progress in the motion and force control of multiple manipulators, there has been a continuing question about which physical force should be and can be controlled. The frequently used orthogonal decomposition is plagued by a unit inconsistency problem, rendering its physical interpretation difficult if not impossible. This paper introduces a new and intuitively appealing concept of internal force, and shows how its regulation can be handled by the existing approaches.
This work presents the dynamic equations of motion for two or more cooperating manipulators on a freely moving mobile platform. The formulation includes the full dynamic interactions from arms-to-platform and arm-tip to arm-tip and the possible translation and rotation of the platform. The system of cooperating robot manipulators forms a closed kinematic chain where the forces of interaction are included in the simulation of robot and platform dynamics. The forces of interaction are outputs of the analysis giving force/torque sensor values at the tip of each manipulator. The equations of motion are shown to be identical in structure to the fixed-platform cooperative manipulator dynamics. The structure of the closed chain dynamics allows the use of any solution for the open topological tree of base and manipulator links where due to the large number of links linear recursive methods become more efficient.
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