We report on the epi-design and characterisation of VCSELs for atomic sensors, including miniaturised clocks and magnetometers. To understand how epi-design impacts device performance and separate this from effects of growth and fabrication, we employ techniques to study the interplay between optically-active gain medium and the cavity-resonance. We experimentally determine the net modal-gain spectrum of VCSEL material using a single-pass stripe-length method covering the range of pumping and hence gain requirements of VCSELs. This is compared to photovoltage spectroscopic measurements, which are used to determine the quantum well transition energies and cavity resonance, aiding further optimisation of device design.
The frequency shift due to atomic collisions is a major, and in some cases the dominant, limitation to the
accuracy of caesium fountain primary frequency standards. A correction for this shift is usually obtained by
measuring the frequency of the standard as a function of atomic density and performing an extrapolation to zero
density. In general this means that additional measurement time is needed to reach a given statistical resolution.
Recently, we have observed that, for a certain range of fountain parameters (i.e. the initial size of the atom
cloud and its temperature at launch), the collisional frequency shift varies significantly when the population of
the clock states (set by the first Ramsey interaction) is varied. In particular, the collisional shift can be zero for a
certain value of the population ratio. This demonstration of collisional shift cancellation offers the intriguing
prospect of operating the fountain at the zero-shift point, avoiding the need for extrapolation. In this
contribution we provide further experimental validation of the theoretical model describing the collisional shift
variation. We also discuss requirements for and benefits of the operation at the zero shift point. In addition, we
point out the possible consequences of collisional shift variation for operation of a fountain standard at elevated
microwave power, a mode of operation frequently used for the evaluation of other systematic frequency shifts.
Cooling and trapping neural atoms with laser beams became a standard method of studying atom properties in temperatures close to absolute zero. Precise knowledge of physical parameters of the atomic sample is of prime importance in such studies, particularly the knowledge of the number of trapped atoms, their density and temperature. Diagnostics aiming at determination of these parameters has to be performed optically, mainly with the spectroscopic methods. In this paper, we present basic principles of obtaining ultra-cold atoms and methods used for their diagnostics. Some examples of quantum effects specific for low-temperatures, revealed by these methods, are also demonstrated.
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