KEYWORDS: Sensors, Weapons of mass destruction, Homeland security, System identification, Polarization, Platinum, Ions, Electric field sensors, Detector arrays, Defect detection
We present the results from testing over 100 5x5x12 mm3 TlBr detectors configured as 3D position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid (VFG) detectors with platinum contacts. The primary objective was to comprehensively understand factors limiting performance and long-term response variations in these detectors. The incorporation of 3D position sensitivity allowed us to monitor internal changes in charge collection efficiency after applying voltage, and to correlate them with device performance changes. The biased detectors underwent defect distribution alterations due to electric field-enhanced ion migration. Our results are based on an extensive dataset obtained from TlBr crystals produced by Radiation Monitoring Devices (RMD). These measurements were part of our development of a handheld isotope identifier based on an array of position-sensitive TlBr detectors, supported by the Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office. The majority of the detectors exhibited a common trend of performance improvement within 1-2 weeks, stabilization for some period of time, then a slow degradation; however, some detectors deviated from this pattern.
The NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) mission was launched in 2012, and it has successfully deployed the first orbiting telescopes to focus high energy X-ray (3 - 79 keV) light, providing a wealth of new information on high-energy X-rays sources. Follow-up missions, such as the proposed HEX-P, BEST, and FORCE, could perform a deeper black hole census providing a more refined measurement of black hole spins, allowing for greater knowledge about supermassive black holes. These missions are motivated by the recent breakthroughs in the hard X-ray mirror technologies, where mirrors, either made of monolithic silicon segments, or made directly or via replication of shells, demonstrate the feasibility of making hard X-ray mirrors with angular resolutions of 5-10 arc-seconds Half Power Diameter (HPD) compared to the NuSTAR’s 1 arc-minute HPD. Such a high angular resolution requires matched detectors with higher degree of segmentation to fully benefit from the achievable improved spatial resolution. In the above framework, the HEXID ASIC, a novel pixelated front-end suitable for reading out a finely segmented CZT sensor with 150 μm pixel pitch in a hexagonal arrangement has been developed. This readout pixelated chip is capable of processing photon-generated charge packets over a large dynamic range (from 2 keV up to 180 keV), while keeping a low input noise (ENC <20 e-). In this work, the initial characterization of the ASIC prototype will be presented.
KEYWORDS: X-ray telescopes, X-rays, Tunable filters, Signal processing, Hard x-rays, Simulations, Sensors, Analog electronics, Spatial resolution, Design and modelling
The NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) mission launched in 2012, and it has successfully deployed the first orbiting telescopes to focus light in the high-energy x-ray range (3 - 79 keV), providing a wealth of new information about the sources of high-energy x-rays. Follow-up missions such as the proposed HEX-P, BEST, and FORCE could perform a deeper black hole census providing a more refined measurement of black hole spins, allowing for greater knowledge about supermassive black holes. These missions are motivated by recent breakthroughs in hard x-ray mirror technologies where mirrors made of monolithic silicon segments and mirrors made directly or through replication of shells demonstrate the feasibility of making hard x-ray mirrors with angular resolutions of five to ten arc seconds Half Power Diameter (HPD) compared to NuSTAR’s one arc minute HPD. Such a high angular resolution requires matched detectors (higher pixel density) to fully benefit from the achievable improved spatial resolution. In the above framework, the development of the HEXID ASIC, embedding is a novel pixelated front-end suitable for reading out a finely segmented CZT sensor, is presented. The required large dynamic range (from 2 keV to 180 keV) and low input noise (ENC ⪅ 20 e−) together with a small pixel size (150 μm) pose several design challenges in chip implementation. The chosen architecture of the front-end circuit and in-pixel processing blocks, together with the readout architecture of the registered signals and other adopted design solutions, driven by the quoted requirements, will be reviewed.
We present the results from testing the performance of CdZnTe (CZT) position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid (VFG) detectors for gamma-ray imaging. Large-volume CZT detectors with dimensions up to 10x10x30 mm3 recently became available from CZT crystal vendors. Such devices improve detection efficiency and position resolution when integrated into position-sensitive photon counting cameras proposed for nonproliferation, nuclear security, and gamma-ray astronomy. It is important to evaluate the factors affecting the response uniformity and limiting the performance of these detectors. In general, the response non-uniformities could be caused by detector geometries, materials inhomogeneity, and crystal defects. Several techniques have been developed to correct response non-uniformities and improve detector performance. Among them are the high-granularity position-sensitive detectors, which provide the most accurate and robust corrections. Position sensitivity can also be used to reveal response non-uniformities and understand their causes during the detector development or fabrication stages. Here, we describe a technique that we developed for position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid detectors employing CdZnTe (CZT) and other semiconductors. To illustrate our experimental technique, we measured responses from the selected detectors of different qualities acquired from different vendors and grown by different methods.
TlBr is a promising material for room-temperature semiconductor gamma-ray detectors currently under development by several groups around the world. TlBr has the optimal combination of properties: high atomic number, high density, high mu-tau product, low Fano factor, and lower fabrication cost compared to other materials. The presence of crystal defects and ionic drift-diffusion enchained by the electric field affects the performance of today’s TlBr detectors. As a bias is applied across a detector, a defect distribution inside starts changing due to ion migration. The changes appear to be most pronounced in the first weeks of applying a bias to newly-manufactured crystals during the “conditioning” period. The 3-D position-sensitive detectors provide an opportunity to investigate these processes and their effects on the device performance and on corrections applied to the spectrum. Here, we present results from analyzing response changes in TlBr crystals under applied biases using position-sensitive capacitive Frisch-grid detectors.
This work has been supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office, under competitively awarded contract 70RDND18C00000024. This support does not constitute an express or implied endorsement on the part of the Government.
We report on the results from testing CdZnTe (CZT) position-sensitive virtual Frisch-grid (VFG) detectors and a prototype of a 16x16 detector array proposed for a high-energy gamma ray imaging space telescope. Previously, we evaluated the spectroscopic performance of these detectors. Here, we present results from our detector performance studies with an emphasis on position resolution. We employed digital waveform capturing and analog ASIC based approaches to read out the signals from the detectors and evaluate their spectral- and spatial-resolution. The VFG arrays allow for the flexibility to scale-up the dimensions of the detectors for the desired efficiency, while the position information allows for correcting the detectors’ response non-uniformities caused by crystal defects and device geometry, thereby reducing the instrument cost and making them more feasible for emerging applications in gamma-ray astronomy, nonproliferation, portal screening and nuclear safeguards, where large
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